Читать бесплатно онлайн книгу  Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States / USDA Bulletin 280

автор F.E.L.Beal

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United

States, by F. E. L. Beal

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with

almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or

re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included

with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org

Title: Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States

USDA Bulletin 280

Author: F. E. L. Beal

Release Date: October 11, 2010 [EBook #33935]

Language: English

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES ***

Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and

the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

http://www.pgdp.ne

Transcriber's Notes

The text presented is essentially that in the original printed document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and the three typographical corrections detailed below. The original version also had two copies of the Table of Contents. The second copy which appeared on Page 1 was removed. Many of the tables which were presented in a two-column format and sometimes split between two pages were reformatted into one long table. The page markers were placed so that they matched up with whichever original item would place the page number in about the same relative position as the printed version.

Typos

Page 1

:

Veery And Willow thrust

=>   

Veery And Willow thrush

Page 10

:

COLEOFTERA

=>   

COLEOPTERA

  "

:

Cormybites

=>   

Corymbites

 

 

 

 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 280

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey

HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief

Washington, D. C.

PROFESSIONAL PAPER

September 27, 1915

 

FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES

OF THE UNITED STATES

 

By F. E. L. Beal, Assistant Biologist.

 

 

CONTENTS.

 

Page.

Introduction.

    1

Townsend's Solitaire

3

Wood Thrush.

5

Veery And Willow Thrush.

9

Page.

   

Gray-Cheeked And Bicknell's Thrushes.

11

   

Olive-Backed And Russet-Backed Thrushes.

13

   

Hermit Thrushes.

18

 

 

 

 

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1915

 

 

 

 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BULLETIN No. 280

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey

HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief

Washington, D. C.

PROFESSIONAL PAPER

September 27, 1915

 

FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE

UNITED STATES.

By F. E. L. Beal, Assistant Biologist.

 

INTRODUCTION.

 

North American thrushes (Turdidæ) constitute a small but interesting group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but noted as songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as thrushes, robins, bluebirds, Townsend's solitaire, and the wheatears. The red-winged thrush of Europe (Turdus musicus) is accidental in Greenland, and the wheatears (Saxicola œnanthe subspp.) are rarely found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America. Within the limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of which the following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend's solitaire (Myadestes townsendi), the wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), the veery and willow thrush (Hylocichla fuscescens subspp.), the gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes (Hylocichla aliciæ subspp.), the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes (Hylocichla ustulata subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (Hylocichla guttata subspp.). An account of the food habits of the 5 species of robins and bluebirds appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171.

As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp.

The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders, myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion of their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with insects and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has a different origin. It was noticed that the setæ or spines of earthworms were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegetation. Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs, although some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known that the food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed vegetable matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed vegetation found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained in the earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms are quickly digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals mixed with the hard indigestible setæ or spines.

Thrushes of the genus Hylocichla show a very pronounced taste for ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five species is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show so strong a liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in general, including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item of insect food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article of thrush diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite food with most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes.

The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be seen picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vegetable portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of fruit, which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this 30.88 per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the domestic varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits or berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it is not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or some other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often the case, a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pronounced "fruit pulp" without further identification; thus probably many more species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the case of some fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the seeds, so that many species go unrecognized except as to genus. Domestic fruits are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here considered as to be of no economic importance.

Note.—This bulletin treats of the economic relations and value to agriculture of the thrushes of the United States other than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were discussed in Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915.

 

 

TOWNSEND'S SOLITAIRE

(Myadestes townsendi.)

 

Townsend's solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It ranges from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino, Cal., and through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and occasionally farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over this region, but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as afford its favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits the bird will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry, and its food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this species is said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family.

As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41 stomachs are available for determining the character of its food. The most southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most westerly in California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They are distributed through all the months of the year, although April and May are represented by but one each and December by but two. Every other month has three or more. An investigation based upon such limited material can be considered only as preliminary, but will serve to show some of the more important elements of the food. This was made up of 35.90 per cent of animal matter to 64.10 of vegetable.

Animal food.—The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with a few hair worms (Gordius) found in one stomach. These last may have been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects, beetles constitute the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89 per cent of these were the useful predatory ground beetles (Carabidæ). This is not a good showing, but too few stomachs have been examined to allow sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can not be taken as a fair sample of the bird's food habits it may be stated that all of these beetles were taken in January and October. The one stomach collected in January contained 95 per cent of Carabidæ—the only animal food in it—and 93 per cent of the contents of one October stomach was made up of the same material. Evidently in these cases the bird had found a colony of the beetles and filled up with them. Had they constituted the usual diet of the species they would have appeared in other months and in more stomachs, but in smaller quantities. Other families of beetles are eaten so sparingly as to be of little importance. Scarabæidæ stand the next highest, but they amount to less than 2 per cent of the food.

Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of Myadestes. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably are a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs collected in every month of the year but four, and a greater number of stomachs would probably show them in every month. The one stomach taken in May contained the maximum (72 per cent). The total for the year is 12.95 per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of 4.71 per cent, while other Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make up less than half of 1 per cent. Diptera (flies) are represented by a mere trace in the stomachs. Observers who have seen this bird in its native haunts testify that it takes a considerable portion of its food on the wing. In view of this fact it seems curious that the two orders of insects most active on the wing (Hymenoptera and Diptera) should be so scantily represented in the food. Hymenoptera are a standard diet with flycatchers and would seem to be the natural food of any bird that feeds upon the wing.

Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March, June, and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies, constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1 per cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to the extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their distribution they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake (Gordius) was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

COLEOPTERA.

 

Amara erratica

1   

Aphodius

sp

1   

Balaninus

sp

1   

HEMIPTERA.

 

Platypedia putnami

1   

 

 

Vegetable food.—The vegetable portion of the food of Myadestes is 64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even distribution of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few seeds of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few weed seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

Rocky Mountain cedar (

Juniperus scopulorum

)

3   

Western cedar (

Juniperus monospermum

)

1   

Other cedars (

Juniperus

sp.)

2   

Hackberries (

Celtis occidentalis

)

1   

Douglas hackberries (

Celtis douglasii

)

1   

Service berries (

Amelanchier

sp.)

1   

Rose haws (

Rosa

sp.)

2   

Wild cherries (

Prunus

sp.)

1   

Sumac berries (

Rhus

sp.)

1   

Poison ivy (

Rhus toxicodendron

)

1   

Waxwork (

Celastrus

sp.)

1   

Madrona berries (

Arbutus menziesii

)

5   

Honeysuckle berries (

Lonicera

sp.)

1   

Elderberries (

Sambucus

sp.)

1   

Fruit not further identified

3   

 

 

Summary.—With so small an amount of material it is not safe to draw general conclusions, but in the case of Myadestes one point seems clear—the bird's favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long as this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the solitaire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be introduced these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions this bird, now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage.

 

 

WOOD THRUSH.

(Hylocichla mustelina.)

 

The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of open groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little-traveled roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for its sweet song, and many country people who are well acquainted with its notes know little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite time for singing is in the early evening at the close of a sultry afternoon when a shower has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not nest in gardens or orchards and is seldom seen about farm buildings. It is strictly migratory, and the greater number pass out of the United States in winter, though a few remain in the Southern States. It usually migrates north in April or early May.

For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171 stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will be treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April to October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April, the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the month of the return migration.

Animal food.—Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ), generally considered useful. The remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which the May-beetle family (Scarabæidæ) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16 per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elateridæ) to 2.13 per cent.

Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains of the well-known Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), in two stomachs, and Coptocycla signifera, also injurious to the potato, in one stomach. Remains of Otiorhynchus ovatus, a weevil destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and in one other a weevil, Sphenophorus parvulus, that injures the roots of grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and a host of other plants are the immature forms of many species of Lachnosterna, of several species of Euphoria and of Allorhina nitida. Of these, remains of Lachnosterna were found in 27 stomachs and of Allorhina and Euphoria in one each.

 

 

B2084-73

Fig. 1.

—Wood thrush (

Hylocichla mustelina

).

 

 

Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next to Coleoptera (beetles) in the animal diet of the wood thrush. Although eaten with a fair degree of regularity during every month of the bird's stay in the north, the most were taken in July (16.32 per cent). The average for the season is 9.42 per cent. Ants as an item of food are third in importance, though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would rank next to beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with all birds of the genus Hylocichla. With the wood thrush they begin with 18.12 per cent in April and gradually decrease through the summer and disappear in October. The total for the season is 8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera other than ants were eaten with great regularity (3.86 per cent) throughout the season, but not in large quantities. Diptera (flies) are eaten in small quantities and rather irregularly. Most of them were the long-legged crane flies (Tipulidæ), both in the adult and larval form. The total for the season is 2.70 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) do not appear to be a favorite food, though a few were taken in all of the seven months except October. The average for the season is only 1.33 per cent. Orthoptera (grasshoppers) are eaten in small quantities until July, after which they form a fair percentage till September. The total consumption amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. A few other insects make up a fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) appear to be a favorite food with the wood thrush, constituting in April 20.94 per cent of the food, but gradually decreasing in quantity until September. The aggregate for the year is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs (isopods), snails, and earthworms (1.83 per cent) close the account of animal food.

Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found:

 

HYMENOPTERA.

 

Tiphia inornata

1   

 

COLEOPTERA.

 

Harpalus herbivagus

1   

Necrophorus tomentosus

1   

Philonthus lomatus

1   

Hister abbreviatus

1   

Hister depurator

1   

Hister americanus

2   

Ips quadriguttatus

1   

Melanotus americanus

1   

Corymbites cylindriformis

1   

Agrilus bilineatus

1   

Telephorus carolinus

1   

Onthophagus striatulus

1   

Onthophagus tuberculifrons

1   

Onthophagus

sp

3   

Atænius

sp

2   

Aphodius granarius

1   

Aphodius

sp

1   

Dichelonycha testacea

1   

Dichelonycha

sp

1   

Lachnosterna

sp

27   

Ligyrus

sp

1   

Allorhina nitida

1   

Euphoria fulgida

1   

Euphoria

sp

2   

Chrysomela pulchra

1   

Leptinotarsa decemlineata

2   

Odontota

sp

1   

Coptocycla signifera

1   

Coptocycla

sp

1   

Anametus griseus

1   

Phyxelis rigidus

1   

Otiorhynchus ovatus

2   

Tanymecus confertus

1   

Pandeletejus hilaris

1   

Barypithes pellucidus

1   

Listronotus latiusculus

1   

Macrops

sp

1   

Conotrachelus posticatus

2   

Acalles carinatus

1   

Balaninus

sp

2   

Eupsalis minuta

1   

Sphenophorus parvulus

1   

 

HEMIPTERA.

 

Nezara hilaris

2   

 

ORTHOPTERA.

 

Diapheromera femorata

1   

 

ISOPTERA.

 

Termes flavipes

1   

 

 

Vegetable food.—More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of the wood thrush can be included in a single item—fruit. Cultivated fruit, or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs taken from June to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly and moderately, and the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of the whole food. Wild fruits or berries of 22 species were found in 72 stomachs, distributed through every month of the bird's stay at the north. Beginning with 1.18 per cent in April, the quantity gradually increases to 87.17 per cent in October, when it makes more than five-sixths of the whole food. The average for the season is 33.51 per cent. In this investigation Rubus seeds (blackberries or raspberries) are always reckoned as cultivated fruit, though probably most often wild. Besides fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were found, which with a little rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41 per cent).

Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

Yew berries (

Taxus minor

)

1   

False Solomon's seal (

Smilacina racemosa

)

1   

Bayberries (

Myrica carolinensis

)

1   

Mulberries (

Morus

sp.)

10   

Spiceberries (

Benzoin æstivale

)

5   

Currants (

Ribes

sp.)

1   

Mountain ash (

Pyrus americanus

)

2   

Service berries (

Amelanchier canadensis

)

2   

Blackberries or raspberries (

Rubus

sp.)

17   

Rose haws (

Rosa

sp.)

1   

Wild black cherries (

Prunus serotina

)

1   

Chokecherries (

Prunus virginiana

)

7   

Domestic cherries (

Prunus cerasus

)

4   

Croton (

Croton

sp.)

1   

American holly (

Ilex opaca

)

2   

Woodbine berries (

Psedera quinquefolia

)

1   

Frost grapes (

Vitis cordifolia

)

4   

Wild sarsaparilla (

Aralia nudicaulis

)

1   

Flowering dogwood (

Cornus florida

)

3   

Rough-leaved cornel (

Cornus asperifolia

)

4   

Dogwood (

Cornus

sp.)

1   

Black gum (

Nyssa sylvatica

)

1   

Huckleberries (

Gaylussacia

sp.)

1   

Blueberries (

Vaccinium

sp.)

6   

French mulberry (

Callicarpa americana

)

1   

Black elderberries (

Sambucus canadensis

)

1   

Other elderberries (

Sambucus

sp.)

3   

Fruit pulp not further identified

12   

 

 

Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the one taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit and 7 per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in Alabama in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which 88 per cent was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs, and 1 per cent spiders.

Summary.—The animal food of the wood thrush includes remarkably few useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the Colorado potato beetle and many of the Scarabæidæ, the larval forms of which are the well-known white grubs which are a pest to agriculture in preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable portion of the food contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but observation shows that the thrush is in the habit of picking up fallen fruit instead of taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of wild fruit has no economic interest except that it serves to distribute the seeds of many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to discriminate against this bird in any way. It should be rigidly protected.

 

 

VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH.

(Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens and Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola.)

 

The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In winter it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few remaining in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes, birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been known, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the farmer's crops.

For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were available. They were collected during the seven months from April to October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of remains of insects, and the latter of fruit.

Animal food.—Predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ) amount to 0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidæ, which are conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notorious plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). A number of other harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera (bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent.

Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. Grasshoppers appear to some extent in every month except April, the greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

HYMENOPTERA.

 

Tiphia inornata

1   

 

COLEOPTERA

 

Elaphrus ruscarius

1   

Anisodactylus harrisi

1   

Anisodactylus

sp

1   

Pterostichus lucublandus

1   

Hydrobius fuscipes

1   

Ips fasciata

1   

Byrrhus murinus

1   

Dolopius lateralis

2   

Limonius æger

1   

Corymbites cylindriformis

1   

Corymbites spinosus

1   

Corymbites

tarsalis

1   

Corymbites hieroglyphicus

1   

Podabrus flavicollis

1   

Telephorus bilineatus

2   

Telephorus

sp

1   

Onthophagus

sp

2   

Atænius cognatus

1   

Aphodius

sp

3   

Dichelonycha

sp

2   

Serica sericea

1   

Lachnosterna hirticula

1   

Lachnosterna

sp

13   

Chrysomela pulchra

3   

Chlamys plicata

1   

Typophorus canellus

1   

Graphops simplex

1   

Graphops

sp

1   

Calligrapha philadelphica

1   

Œdionychis quercata

1   

Microrhopala vittata

1   

Hormorus undulatus

1   

Phyxelis rigidus

1   

Otiorhynchus ovatus

1   

Neoptochus adspersus

1   

Cercopeus chrysorrhœus

2   

Barypithes pellucidus

2   

Sitones

sp

2   

Phytonomus nigrirostris

2   

Conotrachelus nenuphar

1   

Conotrachelus posticatus

1   

Tyloderma

sp

1   

Monarthrum mali

1   

Xyloteres politus

1   

 

DIPTERA.

 

Bibio

sp

1   

 

 

Vegetable food.—The vegetable portion of the food of the species is made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous matter more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per cent, of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varieties and so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite certainly of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is more than three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild fruit eaten is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit consumed is very nearly the same with both birds. From this percentage of domestic fruit one might infer that the veery was, or might be, a serious menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints have been heard, and it is probable that the species is not numerous enough to damage cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of the fruit eating of the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated fruit, so called, was in every case either strawberries or Rubus fruits, i. e., blackberries or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and in abundance wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable that all of the fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14 per cent has been conventionally recorded as cultivated.

Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and a few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the stomachs. These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the vegetable food.

Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

Yew berries (

Taxus minor

)

1   

Pigeon grass seed (

Chætochloa

sp.)

1   

Rush grass seed (

Sporobolus minor

)

1   

False Solomon's seal (

Smilacina

sp.)

1   

Greenbrier berries (

Smilax

sp.)

2   

Hackberries (

Celtis occidentalis

)

1   

Poke berries (

Phytolacca decandra

)

3   

Spice berries (

Benzoin æstivale

)

2   

Service berries (

Amelanchier canadensis

)

3   

June berries (

Amelanchier

sp.)

9   

Mountain ash (

Pyrus americana

)

1   

Crab apples (

Pyrus

sp.)

1   

Strawberries (

Fragaria

sp.)

3   

Blackberries or raspberries (

Rubus

sp.)

8   

Wild black cherries (

Prunus serotina

)

1   

Bird cherries (

Prunus pennsylvanica

)

1   

Chokecherries (

Prunus virginiana

)

1   

Staghorn sumac (

Rhus hirta

)

2   

Dwarf sumac (

Rhus copallina

)

1   

Three-leaved sumac (

Rhus trilobata

)

1   

Other sumac (

Rhus

sp.)

1   

American holly (

Ilex opaca

)

1   

Woodbine berries (

Psedera quinquefolia

)

1   

White cornel (

Cornus candidissima

)

2   

Alternate-leaved cornel (

Cornus alternifolia

)

3   

Rough-leaved cornel (

Cornus asperifolia

)

1   

Dogwood berries (

Cornus

sp.)

2   

Sour gum berries (

Nyssa sylvatica

)

1   

Huckleberries (

Gaylussacia

sp.)

1   

Blueberries (

Vaccinium

sp.)

4   

Snowberries (

Symphoricarpos racemosus

)

2   

Black elderberries (

Sambucus canadensis

)

2   

Red elderberries (

Sambucus pubens

)

4   

Other elderberries (

Sambucus

sp.)

3   

Fruit pulp not further identified

4   

 

 

Summary.—It is hardly necessary to make a summary of the food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral. In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth.

 

 

GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL'S THRUSHES.

(Hylocichla aliciæ aliciæ and Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli.)

 

The gray-cheeked thrush (H. a. aliciæ) is found in migration over all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our limits. Bicknell's thrush (H. a. bicknelli), a closely related form, while having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south and nests in the mountains of northern New York and New England. Both subspecies have the same general habits as other forms of the genus so far as haunts and choice of residence are concerned, but their far-northern range excludes them from coming into contact with cultivated crops. The species does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, and consequently only a few stomachs have been received for examination. In all they number but 111 and are very irregularly distributed in time. None were taken in August and only one in July and two in June. From so scanty and unevenly distributed material it is impossible to draw final conclusions, but we can get some idea as to the nature of the bird's food and its economic importance.

The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found in the stomachs of any bird of the genus Hylocichla and the largest but two of any of the thrushes.

Animal food.—Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of all the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scarabæidæ, Elateridæ, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount to 16.34 per cent and are eaten very regularly—the most in the early part of the season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and bees, were eaten to the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make 21.94 per cent, placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the case of ants, most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three months of the season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) were third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent). No special pest was discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered as harmful. A few grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken in April and May, and more in those collected in September and October. They do not appear to be a favorite food and amount to only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, as flies, bugs, and a few others, collectively amount to 2.89 per cent. Among these, it is of interest to note in one stomach the remains of the famous seventeen-year locust (Tibicen septemdecem), rather large game for so small a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the gray-cheeked thrush in spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season they constitute 5.77 per cent of the food. A few other animals, as crawfish, sowbugs, and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal food.

Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

HYMENOPTERA.

 

Lophyrus

sp

1   

Aphænogaster tennesseense

1   

 

COLEOPTERA.

 

Cychrus andrewsi

2   

Cychrus

sp

2   

Dyschirius hispidus

1   

Hister sedecimstriatus

1   

Phelister vernus

1   

Epuræa rufa

3   

Stelidota 8-maculata

1   

Byrrhus murinus

1   

Eucinetus morio

1   

Monocrepidius vespertinus

1   

Agriotes limosus

1   

Corymbites signaticollis

1   

Podabrus flavicollis

1   

Telephorus bilineatus

1   

Onthophagus

sp

1   

Atænius strigatus

1   

Atænius ovatulus

1   

Atænius

sp

3   

Aphodius ruricola

1   

Aphodius inquinatus

3   

Aphodius

sp

1   

Serica

sp

1   

Lachnosterna

sp

10   

Anomala

sp

1   

Leptura sphæricollis

1   

Leptura mutabilis

1   

Chrysomela pulchra

4   

Blapstinus metallicus

1   

Helops micans

1   

Hormorus undulatus

1   

Otiorhynchus ovatus

1   

Cercopeus chrysorrhœus

2   

Pandeletejus hilaris

1   

Sitones

sp

1   

Hylobius pales

1   

Desmoris constrictus

1   

Bagous sellatus

1   

Anthonomus sycophanta

1   

Conotrachelus posticatus

2   

Acalles clavatus

1   

Acalles

sp

1   

Cryptorhynchus ferratus

1   

Sphenophorus melanocephalus

1   

 

HEMIPTERA.

 

Tibicen septendecem

1   

Nezara hilaris

1   

 

 

Vegetable food.—A few Rubus seeds were recorded as cultivated fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In any case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 different species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the whole food—in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which consists of insects and spiders.

The following list shows the fruits and seeds identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

False spikenard (

Smilacina racemosa

)

1   

Greenbrier berries (

Smilax

sp.)

2   

Bayberries (

Myrica carolinensis

)

1   

Poke berries (

Phytolacca decandra

)

2   

Crab apples (

Pyrus

sp.)

1   

Wild black cherries (

Prunus serotina

)

5   

Blackberries or raspberries (

Rubus

sp.)

2   

Sumac berries (

Rhus

sp.)

1   

Black-alder berries (

Ilex verticillata

)

1   

Wild grapes (

Vitis

sp.)

5   

Wild sarsaparilla (

Aralia

sp.)

1   

Flowering dogwood (

Cornus florida

)

5   

Rough-leaved dogwood (

Cornus asperifolia

)

2   

White cornel (

Cornus candidissima

)

1   

Dogwood (

Cornus

sp.)

1   

Sour gum (

Nyssa sylvatica

)

2   

Black nightshade (

Solanum nigrum

)

1   

Dockmackie (

Viburnum acerifolium

)

1   

Arrowwood (

Viburnum

sp.)

1   

Elderberries (

Sambucus canadensis

)

3   

Fruit not further identified

6   

 

 

Summary.—In the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only useful element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The remainder of the animal food is composed of either harmful or neutral elements. The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature's great storehouse, contains no product of human industry, either of grain or fruit. Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting this bird, the economic ones are equally valid.

 

 

OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES.

(Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni and Hylocichla ustulata ustulata.)

 

The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far south as southern California. The habits of birds of this species resemble those of others of the genus in living in swamps and woodlands rather than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back on the Pacific coast, however, seems to have become quite domestic, and wherever a stream runs through or past an orchard or garden, or the orchard is near thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found taking its toll of the fruit and rearing its young in the thicket beside the stream. During the cherry season it takes a liberal share of the fruit, but its young, then in the nest, are fed almost entirely on insects. The eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come in contact with domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry. A great number of the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit raising.

For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush were available, collected in 25 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most southern collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest Territory the most northern. In California 157 stomachs were obtained, which, with those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly represent the Pacific coast region. The whole collection was fairly well distributed over the nine months from March to November. The food consisted of 63.52 per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent of vegetable.

Animal food.—Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The others belong to harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout-beetles (Rhynchophora) amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such insects. One Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was found in a stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera collectively aggregate 21.50 per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants—a favorite food of Hylocichla. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were wild bees and wasps. No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which rank next in importance in the food of the olive-back, form a good percentage of the food of every month represented and aggregate 10.30 per cent for the season.

Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes, as they chiefly inhabit open areas, while Hylocichla prefers thick damp cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of the record shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the olive-back consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from those of grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs, or dead herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and September. The average for the season is 2.42 per cent.

Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.23 per cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent except by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the wing. The flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies (Tipulidæ) or March flies (Bibio), both in the adult and larval state. Crane flies are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The larvæ of both groups are developed in moist ground, and often in colonies of several hundred. With these habits it is not surprising that they fall an easy prey to the thrushes.

Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the food, were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July reach 11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Pentatomidæ), shield bugs (Scutelleridæ), tree hoppers (Membracidæ), leaf hoppers (Jassidæ), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one stomach. The total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects not included in any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per cent of the food. Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per cent, the lowest figure for this item of any bird of the genus Hylocichla. Snails, sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete the animal food.

Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

HYMENOPTERA.

 

Camponotus pennsylvanicus

1   

Tiphia inornata

1   

 

COLEOPTERA.

 

Cychrus nitidicollis

1   

Cychrus stenostomus

1   

Notiophilus æneus

1   

Pterostichus sayi

1   

Pterotichus lustrans

1   

Amara interstitialis

1   

Triæna longula

1   

Agonoderus pallipes

1   

Silpha ramosa

1   

Staphylinus cinnamopterus

1   

Tachyporus californicus

1   

Chilocorus orbus

1   

Scymnus

sp

1   

Hister americanus

1   

Ips quadriguttatus

4   

Cytilus sericeus

1   

Agriotes stabilis

1   

Podabrus flavicollis

2   

Podabrus modestus

2   

Silis lutea

1   

Telephorus carolinus

1   

Telephorus bilineatus

5   

Telephorus divisus

2   

Onthophagus hecate

1   

Onthophagus striatulus

1   

Onthophagus tuberculifrons

2   

Onthophagus

sp

4   

Atænius abditus

1   

Aphodius hamatus

1   

Aphodius fimetarius

6   

Aphodius inquinatus

7   

Aphodius

sp

6   

Geotrupes

sp

1   

Dichelonycha elongata

2   

Lachnosterna hirticula

1   

Lachnosterna

sp

12   

Anomala undulata

1   

Anomala

sp

1   

Euphoria fulgida

1   

Donacia emarginata

1   

Hæmonia nigricornis

1   

Syneta pallida

1   

Leptinotarsa decemlineata

1   

Gastroidea

sp

1   

Galerucella decora

1   

Diabrotica soror

1   

Diabrotica

sp

1   

Gonioctena pallida

1   

Luperodes bivittatus

1   

Opatrinus notus

1   

Blapstinus metallicus

1   

Blapstinus mæstus

1   

Blapstinus

sp

1   

Otiorhynchus ovatus

1   

Thinoxenus

sp

1   

Cercopeus chrysorrhæus

1   

Barypithes pellucidus

1   

Sitones flavescens

1   

Sitones

sp

1   

Phytonomus punctatus

2   

Pachylobius picivorus

1   

Conotrachelus posticatus

1   

Micromastus elegans

1   

Acalles clavatus

1   

Cryptorhynchus bisignatus

1   

Rhinoncus pyrrhopus

1   

Balaninus

sp

3   

Sphenophorus parvulus

1   

Sphenophorus

sp

1   

Scolytus muticus

1   

 

LEPIDOPTERA.

 

Edema albifrons

1   

 

TRICHOPTERA.

 

Phryganea californica

1   

 

HEMIPTERA.

 

Myodocha serripes

1   

Sinea diadema

1   

 

 

This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious species and some that at various times and places have become decided pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata), the spotted squash beetle (Diabrotica soror), the cloverleaf weevil (Phytonomus punctatus), and the various species of Lachnosterna, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many others are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to inflict great damage upon agriculture.

Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the olive-backed thrush consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards of California the writer many times observed the western subspecies of this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that had been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Blackberries and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully managed by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic fruit eaten by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is probable that in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total of cultivated fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole food, but if we consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would practically disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly and in a goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds and a few miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent) close the account.

Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found.

 

White cedar seeds (

Thuja occidentalis

)

1   

Red cedar berries (

Juniperus communis

)

2   

False Solomon's seal (

Smilacina trifolia

)

3   

Greenbrier (

Smilax tamnifolia

)

1   

Cat brier (

Smilax

sp.)

1   

Hackberry (

Celtis occidentalis

)

3   

Mulberry (

Morus

sp.)

2   

Fig (

Ficus

sp.)

3   

Pale persicaria (

Polygonum lapathifolium

)

1   

Poke berries (

Phytolacca decandra

)

9   

Mountain ash (

Pyrus americana

)

1   

Service berries (

Amelanchier

sp.)

1   

Blackberries or raspberries (

Rubus

sp.)

67   

Rose haws (

Rosa

sp.)

1   

Wild black cherries (

Prunus serotina

)

15   

Bird cherries (

Prunus Pennsylvanica

)

2   

Domestic cherries (

Prunus cerasus

)

29   

Domestic plum (

Prunus domestica

)

2   

Apricot (

Prunus armeniaca

)

3   

Filaree (

Erodium

sp.)

1   

Poison oak (

Rhus diversiloba

)

4   

Staghorn sumac (

Rhus hirta

)

2   

Dwarf sumac (

Rhus copallina

)

3   

Other sumac (

Rhus

sp.)

4   

Pepper tree (

Schinus molle

)

1   

American holly (

Ilex opaca

)

1   

Black alder (

Ilex verticillata

)

1   

Coffee berries (

Rhamnus californicus

)

3   

Woodbine (

Psedera quinquefolia

)

10   

Frost grape (

Vitis cordifolia

)

6   

Spikenard (

Aralia racemosa

)

2   

Flowering dogwood (

Cornus florida

)

7   

Kinnikinnik (

Cornus amomum

)

2   

Red osier (

Cornus stolonifera

)

1   

Panicled cornel (

Cornus paniculata

)

3   

Dogwood unidentified (

Cornus

sp.)

6   

Huckleberries (

Gaylussacia

sp.)

1   

Three-flowered nightshade (

Solanum triflorum

)

1   

Nightshade unidentified (

Solanum

sp.)

8   

Black twinberries (

Lonicera involucrata

)

2   

Honeysuckle berries (

Lonicera

sp.)

2   

Snowberries (

Symphoricarpos racemosus

)

2   

Dockmackie (

Viburnum acerifolium

)

1   

Arrowwood (

Viburnum

sp.)

1   

Black elderberries (

Sambucus canadensis

)

6   

Red elderberries (

Sambucus pubens

)

5   

Blue elderberries (

Sambucus glauca

)

15   

Tarweed (

Madia

sp.)

1   

Fruit pulp not further identified

17   

 

 

Food of young of russet-backed thrush.—Before concluding the discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent birds.

The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; beetles, including the useful Carabidæ (7.7 per cent), are irregularly distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs (Phalangidæ). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds.

The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly blackberries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in 1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply.

In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day's work for the parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are constant and very rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short intervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and probably a very much greater number.

Summary.—In a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back's food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-back, comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably overbalancing it in favor of the farmer.

 

 

HERMIT THRUSHES.

(Hylocichla guttata subspp.)

 

The hermit thrush of the subspecies H. g. pallasi inhabits the Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from northern Michigan and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies occupy the Pacific coast region in suitable localities—that is, in the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the genus Hylocichla, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen sitting silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive that by sight it is entirely unknown to many.

Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in winter were collected in the Southern States, the District of Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species.

Animal food.—Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidæ. The remainder are mostly harmful. Scarabæidæ, the larvæ of which are the white grubs that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to the extent of 3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of insects, were taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was the notorious plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) found in two stomachs taken in the District of Columbia in April of different years. Two other species of the same genus also were found, as well as the clover weevil (Epicærus imbricatus). The Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) and the striped squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata), with a number of other species of less notoriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the bird's retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of cultivation.

 

 

B2085-73

Fig. 2.

—Hermit thrush (

Hylocichla guttata

).

 

 

The ants destroyed—12.46 per cent of the food—keep up the reputation of thrushes as ant eaters. They were taken constantly every month, with the greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that month. Other Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of 5.41 per cent, a surprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live in sunshine and open air.

Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families represented, the Pentatomidæ, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but usually in small quantities.

Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either crane flies (Tipulidæ) and their eggs and larvæ, or March flies (Bibio) and their larvæ. Over 150 of the latter were found in one stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very acceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent).

Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

HYMENOPTERA.

 

Tiphia inornata

2   

 

COLEOPTERA.

 

Elaphrus

sp

1   

Notiophilus semistriatus

1   

Scarites subterraneus

1   

Dyschirius pumilis

1   

Pterostichus patruelis

1   

Pterostichus

sp

1   

Amara

sp

1   

Chlænius pennsylvanicus

2   

Stenolophus

sp

1   

Anisodactylus agilis

1   

Tropisternus limbalis

2   

Hydrocharis obtusatus

1   

Sphæridium lecontei

1   

Ptomaphagus consobrinus

1   

Anisotoma valida

1   

Megilla maculata

1   

Anatis 15-maculata

1   

Psyllobora tædata

1   

Brachycantha ursina

1   

Endomychus biguttatus

1   

Cryptophagus

sp

1   

Hister marginicollis

1   

Hister americanus

1   

Saprinus fimbriatus

1   

Carpophilus hemipterus

1   

Perthalycra murrayi

1   

Ips quadriguttatus

3   

Cytilus sericeus

2   

Cytilus

sp

1   

Byrrhus kirbyi

1   

Byrrhus cyclophorus

1   

Cryptohypnus bicolor

2   

Drasterius dorsalis

1   

Dolopius lateralis

1   

Melanotus

sp

2   

Podabrus tomentosus

1   

Canthon

sp

1   

Onthophagus tuberculifrons

1   

Onthophagus

sp

3   

Ægialia lacustris

1   

Rhyssemus scaber

1   

Atænius abditus

1   

Atænius cognatus

1   

Atænius

sp

1   

Aphodius fimetarius

11   

Aphodius granarius

1   

Aphodius rugifrons

1   

Aphodius inquinatus

9   

Aphodius pardalis

1   

Aphodius prodromus

4   

Aphodius crassiusculus

1   

Aphodius

sp

11   

Geotrupes semipunctata

1   

Dichelonycha

sp

1   

Lachnosterna

sp

17   

Chrysomela pulchra

3   

Lema nigrovittata

1   

Chlamys plicata

1   

Myochrous denticollis

2   

Xanthonia 10-notata

1   

Calligrapha scalaris

1   

Leptinotarsa decemlineata

1   

Phædon viridis

1   

Diabrotica vittata

1   

Odontota rubra

1   

Odontota

sp

1   

Haltica torquata

1   

Crepidodera helxines

1   

Syneta ferruginea

1   

Systena elongata

1   

Chætocnema pulicaria

1   

Psylliodes punctulata

1   

Chelymorpha cribraria

1   

Opatrinus notus

1   

Opatrinus aciculatus

1   

Blapstinus metallicus

1   

Blapstinus rufipes

1   

Salpingus virescens

1   

Anthicus pubescens

1   

Notoxus monodon

1   

Notoxus denudatum

1   

Notoxus

sp

1   

Attelabus rhois

1   

Rhigopsis effracta

1   

Cercopeus chrysorrhœus

4   

Pandetetejus hilaris

1   

Barypithes pellucidus

1   

Sitones hispidulus

4   

Sitones flavescens

1   

Trichalophus alternatus

1   

Apion

sp

1   

Listronotus latiusculus

1   

Listronotus inæqualipennis

1   

Listronotus

sp

1   

Macrops

sp

2   

Smicronyx corniculatus

1   

Trachodes ptinoides

1   

Conotrachelus nenuphar

2   

Conotrachelus posticatus

5   

Conotrachelus erinaceus

1   

Rhinoncus pyrrhopus

1   

Onychobaris insidiosus

1   

Balaninus nasicus

1   

Balaninus

sp

1   

Sphenophorus parvulus

1   

Sphenophorus

sp

1   

Dendroctonus terebrans

1   

 

HEMIPTERA.

 

Podops cinctipes

1   

Nezara hilaris

6   

Arhaphe cicindeloides

1   

Corimelæna denudata

1   

Myodocha serripes

2   

 

ORTHOPTERA.

 

Amblycorypha rotundifolia

1   

Œcanthus niveus

1   

 

 

Vegetable food.—The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be expected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest Rubus fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 species were identified with a reasonable degree of certainty in 243 stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter not further identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable food (8.10 per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species of poisonous Rhus. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit and insects are not easily obtainable.

Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:

 

Cedar berries (

Juniperus virginiana

)

2   

False Solomon's seal (

Smilacina racemosa

)

4   

False spikenard (

Smilacina

sp.)

1   

Greenbrier (

Smilax walteri

)

2   

Cat brier (

Smilax bona-nox

)

2   

Laurel-leaved greenbrier (

Smilax laurifolia

)

1   

Other greenbriers (

Smilax

sp.)

11   

Wax myrtle (

Myrica cerifera

)

1   

Bayberries (

Myrica carolinensis

)

7   

Chinquapin (

Castanea pumila

)

1   

Western hackberries (

Celtis occidentalis

)

5   

Other hackberries (

Celtis

sp.)

3   

Figs (

Ficus

sp.)

1   

Mulberries (

Morus

sp.)

1   

Mistletoe berries (

Phoradendron villosum

)

2   

Poke berries (

Phytolacca decandra

)

16   

Miner's lettuce (

Montia perfoliata

)

1   

Sassafras berries (

Sassafras varifolium

)

2   

Spice berries (

Benzoin æstivale

)

1   

Currants (

Ribes

sp.)

3   

Sweet gum (

Liquidambar styraciflua

)

2   

Chokeberries (

Pyrus arbutifolia

)

1   

Service berries (

Amelanchier canadensis

)

9   

Hawthorn (

Cratægus

sp.)

1   

Strawberries (

Fragaria

sp.)

1   

Blackberries or raspberries (

Rubus

sp.)

5   

Rose haws (

Rosa

sp.)

1   

Wild black cherries (

Prunus scrotina

)

3   

Three-seeded mercury (

Acalypha virginica

)

1   

Staghorn sumach (

Rhus typhina

)

5   

Smooth sumach (

Rhus glabra

)

5   

Dwarf sumach (

Rhus copallina

)

7   

Poison ivy (

Rhus radicans

)

3   

Poison oak (

Rhus diversiloba

)

15   

Laurel-leaved sumach (

Rhus laurina

)

2   

Other sumachs (

Rhus

sp.)

12   

Pepper berries (

Schinus molle

)

15   

American holly (

Ilex opaca

)

9   

Black alder (

Ilex verticillata

)

12   

Ink berries (

Ilex glabra

)

9   

Other hollies (

Ilex

sp.)

7   

Strawberry bush (

Euonymus americanus

)

1   

Roxbury waxwork (

Celastrus scandens

)

1   

Supple-Jack (

Berchemia volubilis

)

2   

Coffee berries (

Rhamnus californicus

)

1   

Woodbine (

Psedera quinquefolia

)

10   

Frost grapes (

Vitis cordifolia

)

2   

Wild grapes (

Vitis

sp.)

1   

Wild sarsaparilla (

Aralia nudicaulis

)

1   

Flowering dogwood (

Cornus florida

)

32   

Rough-leaved dogwood (

Cornus asperifolia

)

2   

Black gum (

Nyssa sylvatica

)

2   

Checkerberry (

Gaultheria procumbens

)

1   

Huckleberries (

Gaylussacia

sp.)

1   

Blueberries (

Vaccinium

sp.)

12   

Black nightshade (

Solanum nigrum

)

4   

Bittersweet (

Solanum

sp.)

4   

Goose grass (

Galium aparine

)

1   

Honeysuckle (

Lonicera

sp.)

2   

Indian currant (

Symphoricarpos orbiculatus

)

1   

Downy arrowwood (

Viburnum pubescens

)

1   

Nanny berries (

Viburnum lentago

)

2   

Black elderberries (

Sambucus canadensis

)

4   

Red elderberries (

Sambucus pubens

)

3   

Fruit not further identifiedv60   

 

 

In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. For example, Rhus seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the alimentary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than the nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach to get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts Rhus seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckleberries and blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to Rhus the fruit most eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds that they afford but very little actual food.

Summary.—The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be removed.

 

 

 

 

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

5 CENTS PER COPY

 

 

 

 

End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the

United States, by F. E. L. Beal

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES ***

***** This file should be named 33935-h.htm or 33935-h.zip *****

This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:

http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/9/3/33935/

Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and

the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

http://www.pgdp.ne

Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no

one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation

(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without

permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,

set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to

copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to

protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project

Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you

charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you

do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the

rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose

such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and

research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do

practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is

subject to the trademark license, especially commercial

redistribution.

*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work

(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project

Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project

Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at

http://gutenberg.org/license).

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to

and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property

(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all

the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy

all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.

If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project

Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the

terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or

entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who

agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few

things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works

even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See

paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project

Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement

and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic

works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"

or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project

Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the

collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an

individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are

located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from

copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative

works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg

are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project

Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by

freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of

this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with

the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by

keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project

Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern

what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in

a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check

the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement

before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or

creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project

Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning

the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United

States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate

access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently

whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the

phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project

Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,

copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with

almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or

re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included

with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived

from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is

posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied

and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees

or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work

with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the

work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1

through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the

Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or

1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution

must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional

terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked

to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the

permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm

License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this

work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without

prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with

active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project

Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,

compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any

word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or

distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than

"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version

posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),

you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a

copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon

request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other

form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm

License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works

unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided

that

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from

the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method

you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is

owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he

has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the

Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments

must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you

prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax

returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and

sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the

address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies

you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he

does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm

License. You must require such a user to return or

destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium

and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of

Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any

money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the

electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days

of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free

distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set

forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from

both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael

Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the

Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable

effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread

public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm

collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic

works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain

"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or

corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual

property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a

computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by

your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right

of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project

Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project

Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all

liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal

fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT

LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE

PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE

TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE

LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR

INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH

DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a

defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can

receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a

written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you

received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with

your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with

the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a

refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity

providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to

receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy

is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further

opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth

in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER

WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO

WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.

If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the

law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be

interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by

the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any

provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the

trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone

providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance

with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,

promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,

harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,

that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do

or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm

work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any

Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of

electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers

including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists

because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from

people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's

goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will

remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure

and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.

To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4

and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive

Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit

501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the

state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal

Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification

number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at

http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg

Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent

permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.

Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered

throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at

809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email

business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact

information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official

page at http://pglaf.org

For additional contact information:

Dr. Gregory B. Newby

Chief Executive and Director

gbnewby@pglaf.org

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg

Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide

spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of

increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be

freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest

array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations

($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt

status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United

States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a

considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up

with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations

where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To

SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any

particular state visit http://pglaf.org

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we

have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition

against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who

approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from

outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation

methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other

ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.

To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic

works.

Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm

concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared

with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project

Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.

unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily

keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

http://www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary

Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to

subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.