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Various

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Vinculums, equivalent to parentheses (), have been retained and are represented by an overline.

Musical sharp, flat, natural are represented by glyphs copied from the original book:

, , .

This book contains the first four issues of the Journal, each with its own Table of Contents:

Vol. 1 No. 1

Pages

1

through 104

Vol. 1 No. 2

105

through 208

Vol. 1 No. 3

209

through 316

Vol. 1 No. 4

317

through 442

In issue No. 2, the incorrect numbering of Articles in the text has been left unchanged. The Table of Contents for this issue is correct. This error is noted in an Addendum, Footnote [16], by the publisher.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

More detail can be found at the end of the book.

THE
AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

MORE ESPECIALLY OF

MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY,

AND THE

OTHER BRANCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY;

INCLUDING ALSO

AGRICULTURE

AND THE

ORNAMENTAL AS WELL AS USEFUL

ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D.

Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College; Author of Travels in England, Scotland, and Holland, &c.; and Member of various Literary and Scientific Societies.

VOL. I.

SECOND EDITION.

New-York:

PUBLISHED BY J. EASTBURN AND CO. LITERARY ROOMS, BROADWAY, AND BY HOWE AND SPALDING, NEW-HAVEN.

Sold by Ezekiel Goodall, Hallowell, Maine; Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Maine; Cummings & Hilliard, and Wells & Lilly, Boston; Simeon Butler, Northampton; Samuel G. Goodrich, Hartford; Clark & Lyman, Middletown; Russell Hubbard, Norwich; O. &. L. Goodwin, Litchfield; W. E. Norman, Hudson; William Williams, Utica; E. F. Backus, Albany; S. Potter, Philadelphia; E. J. Coale, Baltimore; W. H. Fitzwhylsonn, Richmond; W. F. Gray, Fredericksburgh; Caleb Atwater, Circleville; William Poundsford, and James Collord, Cincinnati; John Guirey, Columbia, S. C.; W. T. Williams, Savannah; Henry Wills, Edenton; John Mill, Charleston; Samuel S. Spencer, and John Menefee, Natchez; Benjamin Hanna, New-Orleans.

PRINTED BY ABRAHAM PAUL.

1819.

ADVERTISEMENT.

In the following plan of this Work, we trust it will be understood, that we do not pledge ourselves that all the subjects mentioned shall be touched upon in every Number. This is plainly impossible, unless every article should be very short and imperfect. All that the Public are entitled to expect is, that in the progress of the Journal, the various subjects mentioned may occupy such an extent as our communications and resources shall permit.

We have been honoured by such a list of names of gentlemen who are willing to be considered as contributors to this Journal, that the publication of it would afford us no ordinary gratification, did we not feel that it is more decorous to allow their names to appear with their communications, without laying them under a previous pledge to the Public.

PLAN OF THE WORK.

This Journal is intended to embrace the circle of the Physical Sciences, with their application to the Arts, and to every useful purpose.

It is designed as a deposit for original American communications; it will contain also occasional selections from Foreign Journals, and notices of the progress of Science in other countries. Within its plan are embraced

Natural History, in its three great departments of Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology.

Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and their various branches: and Mathematics, pure and mixed.

It will be a leading object to illustrate American Natural History, and especially our Mineralogy and Geology.

The Applications of these sciences are obviously as numerous as physical arts, and physical wants; for no one of these arts or wants can be named which is not connected with them.

While Science will be cherished for its own sake, and with a due respect for its own inherent dignity; it will also be employed as the hand-maid to the Arts. Its numerous applications to Agriculture, the earliest and most important of them: to Manufactures, both mechanical and chemical; and, to Domestic Economy, will be carefully sought out, and faithfully made.

It is within the design of this Journal to receive communications likewise on Music, Sculpture, Engraving, Painting, and generally on the fine and liberal, as well as useful arts;

On Military and Civil Engineering, and the art of Navigation;

Notices, Reviews, and Analyses of new scientific works; accounts of Inventions, and Specifications of Patents;

Biographical and Obituary Notices of scientific men; essays on Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, and generally on such other branches of medicine as depend on scientific principles;

Meteorological Registers, and Reports of Agricultural Experiments: and interesting Miscellaneous Articles, not perhaps exactly included under either of the above heads.

Communications are respectfully solicited from men of science, and from men versed in the practical arts.

Learned Societies are invited to make this Journal, occasionally, the vehicle of their communications to the Public.

The Editor will not hold himself responsible for the sentiments and opinions advanced by his correspondents: he will consider it as an allowed liberty to make slight verbal alterations, where errors may be presumed to have arisen from inadvertency.

CONTENTS.

Page

Introductory

Remarks

1

Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Professor Alex. M. Fisher

9  

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Art. II. Review of Cleaveland's Mineralogy

35

Art. III. New Locality of Fluor Spar, &c.

52

Art. IV. Carbonat of Magnesia, &c. discovered by J. Pierce, Esq.

54

Art. V. Native Copper, near New-Haven

55

Art. VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua

56

Art. VII. American Porcelain Clays, &c.

57

Art. VIII. Native Sulphur from Java

58

Art. IX. Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia

59

Art. X. Mineralogy and Geology of part of Virginia and Tennessee, by Mr. J. H. Kain

60

Art. XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill's edition of Cuvier's Geology

68

Art. XII. Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the Northern States, &c.

69

Art. XIII. Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains

71  

BOTANY.

Art. XIV. Observations on a species of Limosella, by Professor E. Ives

74

Art. XV. Notice of Professor Bigelow's Memoir on the Floral Calendar of the United States, &c.

76

Art. XVI. Journal of the Progress of Vegetation, &c. by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

77  

ZOOLOGY.

Art. XVII. Description of a new Species of Marten, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

82

Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Copper-Head Snake, by the same

84  

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

Art. XIX. On a Method of augmenting the Force of Gunpowder, by Colonel G. Gibbs

87

Art. XX. On the connexion between Magnetism and Light, by the same

89

Art. XXI. On a new means of Producing Heat and Light, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq.

91

Art. XXII. On the Effects of the Earthquakes of 1811, 1812, on the Wells in Columbia, South Carolina, by Professor Edward D. Smith

93

Art. XXIII. On the Respiration of Oxygen Gas in an Affection of the Thorax

95  

MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. XXIV. On the Priority of Discovery of the Compound Blowpipe, and its Effects

97

Art. XXV. On the Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the Greenland Ice

101

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The age in which we live is not less distinguished by a vigorous and successful cultivation of physical science, than by its numerous and important applications to the practical arts, and to the common purposes of life.

In every enlightened country, men illustrious for talent, worth, and knowledge, are ardently engaged in enlarging the boundaries of natural science; and the history of their labours and discoveries is communicated to the world chiefly through the medium of Scientific Journals. The utility of such Journals has thus become generally evident; they are the heralds of science; they proclaim its toils and its achievements; they demonstrate its intimate connexion as well with the comfort, as with the intellectual and moral improvement of our species; and they often procure for it enviable honours and substantial rewards.

In England the interests of science have been, for a series of years, greatly promoted by the excellent Journals of Tilloch and Nicholson; and for the loss of the latter, the scientific world has been fully compensated by Dr. Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, and by the Journal of Science and the Arts, both published in London.

In France, the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, the Journal des Mines, the Journal de Physique, &c. have long enjoyed a high and deserved reputation. Indeed, there are few countries in Europe which do not produce some similar publication; not to mention the transactions of learned societies and numerous medical Journals.

From these sources our country reaps, and will long continue to reap, an abundant harvest of information: and if the light of science, as well as of day, springs from the east, we will welcome the rays of both; nor should national pride induce us to reject so rich an offering.

But can we do nothing in return? In a general diffusion of useful information through the various classes of society, in activity of intellect, and fertility of resource and invention, characterizing a highly intelligent population, we have no reason to shrink from a comparison with any country. But the devoted cultivators of science, in the United States, are comparatively few; they are, however, rapidly increasing in number. Among them are persons distinguished for their capacity and attainments, and notwithstanding the local feelings nourished by our state sovereignties, and the rival claims of several of our larger cities, there is evidently a predisposition towards a concentration of effort, from which we may hope for the happiest results, with regard to the advancement of both the science and the reputation of our country.

Is it not, therefore, desirable to furnish some rallying point, some object sufficiently interesting to be compassed by common efforts, and thus to become the basis of an enduring, common interest? To produce these efforts, and to excite this interest, nothing, perhaps, bids fairer than a Scientific Journal. Hitherto nearly all our exertions, of this kind, have been made by medical gentlemen, and directed primarily to medical objects. We are neither ignorant nor forgetful of the merits of our various Medical Journals, nor of the zeal with which, as far as consistent with their main object, they have fostered the physical sciences. We are aware, also, that Journals have been established, professedly deriving their materials principally from foreign sources; that our various literary Magazines and Reviews have given, and continue to give, some notices of physical and mathematical subjects, and that some of them seem even partial to these branches of knowledge: that various limited efforts have been made, and are still making, to publish occasional or periodical papers, devoted to mathematical or physical subjects, and that even our newspapers sometimes contain scientific intelligence. We are aware, also, that some of our academies and societies of natural history, either in Journals of their own, or through the medium of existing magazines, communicate to the public the efforts of their members in various branches of natural science.

But all these facts go only to prove the strong tendency which exists in this country towards the cultivation of physical science, and the inadequacy of the existing means for its effectual promulgation.

Although our limits do not permit us, however much inclined, to be more particular in commemorating the labours and in honouring the performances (often marked by much ability) of our predecessors and cotemporaries, there is one effort which we are not willing to pass by without a more particular notice; and we are persuaded that no apology is necessary for naming the Journal of the late Dr. Bruce, of New-York, devoted principally to mineralogy and geology.

No future historian of American science will fail to commemorate this work as our earliest purely scientific Journal, supported by original American communications.

Both in this country and in Europe, it was received in a very flattering manner; it excited, at home, great zeal and effort in support of the sciences which it fostered, and, abroad, it was hailed as the harbinger of our future exertions. The editor was honoured with letters on the subject of his Journal, and with applications for it from most of the countries in Europe; but its friends had to regret that, although conducted in a manner perfectly to their satisfaction, it appeared only at distant intervals, and, after the lapse of several years, never proceeded beyond the fourth number.

The hopes of its revival have now, unhappily, become completely extinct, by the lamented death of Dr. Bruce.[1]

This gentleman, with an accomplished education, with extensive acquirements in science, and great zeal for promoting it in his own country; advantageously and extensively known in Europe, and furnished with a correct and discriminating mind, and a chaste, scientific taste, was so well qualified for the task which he had undertaken, that no one can attempt to resume those scientific labours which he has now for ever relinquished, without realizing that he undertakes an arduous enterprise, and lays himself under a heavy responsibility. American science has much to lament in the death of Dr. Bruce.

No one, it is presumed, will doubt that a Journal devoted to science, and embracing a sphere sufficiently extensive to allure to its support the principal scientific men of our country, is greatly needed; if cordially supported, it will be successful, and if successful, it will be a great public benefit.

Even a failure, in so good a cause, (unless it should arise from incapacity or unfaithfulness,) cannot be regarded as dishonourable. It may prove only that the attempt was premature, and that our country is not yet ripe for such an undertaking; for without the efficient support of talent, knowledge, and money, it cannot long proceed. No editor can hope to carry forward such a work without the active aid of scientific and practical men; but, at the same time, the public have a right to expect that he will not be sparing of his own labour, and that his work shall be generally marked by the impress of his own hand. To this extent the editor cheerfully acknowledges his obligations to the public; and it will be his endeavour faithfully to redeem his pledge.

Most of the periodical works of our country have been short-lived. This, also, may perish in its infancy; and if any degree of confidence is cherished, that it will attain a maturer age, it is derived from the obvious and intrinsic importance of the undertaking; from its being built upon permanent and momentous national interests; from the evidence of a decided approbation of the design, on the part of men of the first eminence, obtained in the progress of an extensive correspondence; from assurances of support, in the way of contributions, from men of ability in many parts of the union; and from the existence of such a crisis in the affairs of this country and of the world, as appears peculiarly auspicious to the success of every wise and good undertaking.

As regards the subjects of this work, it is in our power to do much in the department of the natural history of this country. Our Zoology has been more fully investigated than our mineralogy and botany; but neither department is in danger of being exhausted. The interesting travels of Lewis and Clark have recently brought to our knowledge several plants and animals before unknown. Foreign naturalists frequently explore our territory; and, for the most part, convey to Europe the fruits of their researches, while but a small part of our own productions is examined and described by Americans: certainly, this is little to our credit, and still less to our advantage. Honourable exceptions to the truth of this remark are furnished by the exertions of some gentlemen in our principal cities, and in various other parts of the Union.[2]

Our botany, it is true, has been extensively and successfully investigated; but this field is still rich, and rewards every new research with some interesting discovery. Our mineralogy, however, is a treasure but just opened. That both science and art may expect much advantage from this source, is sufficiently evinced by the success which has crowned the active efforts of a few ardent cultivators of this science: several new species of minerals have been added to it in this country; great numbers of American localities discovered, and interesting additions made to our materials, for the useful and ornamental arts. The science of mineralogy is now illustrated by courses of lectures, and by several good cabinets in the different states. Among the cabinets, the splendid collection of Colonel Gibbs, now in Yale College, (a munificent DEPOSIT for the benefit of his country,) stands pre-eminent: it would be considered as a very noble cabinet in any part of Europe: and its introduction into the United States, and its gratuitous dedication to the promotion of science, are equally advantageous to the community, and honourable to its patriotic and enlightened proprietor. Mineralogy is most intimately connected with our arts, and especially with our agriculture.

Such are the disguises worn by many most useful mineral substances, that an unskilful observer is liable to pass a thing by, as worthless, which, if better informed, he would seize with avidity; and, still more frequently, a worthless substance, clothed perhaps in a brilliant and attractive exterior, excites hopes altogether delusive, and induces expense, without a possibility of remuneration. A diffusion of correct knowledge on this subject is the only adequate remedy for either evil.

Our geology, also, presents a most interesting field of inquiry. A grand outline has recently been drawn by Mr. Maclure, with a masterly hand, and with a vast extent of personal observation and labour: but to fill up the detail, both observation and labour still more extensive are demanded; nor can the object be effected, till more good geologists are formed, and distributed over our extensive territory.

To account for the formation and changes of our globe, by excursions of the imagination, often splendid and imposing, but usually visionary, and almost always baseless, was, till within half a century, the business of geological speculations; but this research has now assumed a more sober character; the science of geology has been reared upon numerous and accurate observations of facts; and standing thus upon the basis of induction, it is entitled to a rank among those sciences which Lord Bacon's Philosophy has contributed to create. Geological researches are now prosecuted, by actually exploring the structure and arrangement of districts, countries, and continents. The obliquity of the strata of most rocks, causing their edges to project in many places above the surface; their exposure in other instances, on the sides or tops of hills and mountains; or, in consequence of the intersection of their strata, by roads, canals, and river-courses, or by the wearing of the ocean; or their direct perforation, by the shafts of mines; all these causes, and others, afford extensive means of reading the interior structure of the globe.

The outlines of American geology appear to be particularly grand, simple, and instructive; and a knowledge of the important facts, and general principles of this science, is of vast practical use, as regards the interests of agriculture, and the research for useful minerals. Geological and mineralogical descriptions, and maps of particular states and districts, are very much needed in the United States; and to excite a spirit to furnish them will form one leading object of this journal.

The science of natural philosophy, with its powerful auxiliary, mathematics, and the science of chemistry, the twin sister of natural philosophy, are of incalculable importance to this country. A volume would not suffice to trace their applications, and to enumerate the instances of their utility.

As one which may be allowed to stand, instar omnium, we may mention the steam engine; that legitimate child of physical and chemical science—at once more powerful than the united force of the strongest and largest animals, and more manageable than the smallest and gentlest; raising from the bowels of the earth the massy treasures of its mines, drawing up rivers from their channels, and pouring them, in streams of life, into the bosom of cities; and, above all, propelling against the currents, the winds, and the waves of the ocean, those stupendous vessels, which combine speed with certainty, and establish upon the bosom of the deep the luxuries and accommodations of the land.

The successful execution of this magnificent design was first witnessed upon the waters of the Hudson, but is now imitated in almost every civilized country; and it remains to be seen whether they will emulate us by transporting, by the same means, and against the same obstacles, the most formidable trains of artillery.

The mechanical inventions of this country are numerous; many of them are ingenious, and some are highly important. In no way can a knowledge of them be so readily and extensively diffused as in a scientific journal. To this object, therefore, a part of our labours (should there be a call for it,) will be devoted, and every necessary aid will be given by plates and descriptions.

Science and art mutually assist each other; the arts furnish facts and materials to science, and science illuminates the path of the arts.

The science of mathematics, both pure and mixed, can never cease to be interesting and important to man, as long as the relations of quantity shall exist, as long as ships shall traverse the ocean, as long as man shall measure the surface or heights of the earth on which he lives, or calculate the distances and examine the relations of the planets and stars; and as long as the iron reign of war shall demand the discharge of projectiles, or the construction of complicated defences.

In a word, the whole circle of physical science is directly applicable to human wants, and constantly holds out a light to the practical arts; it thus polishes and benefits society, and every where demonstrates both supreme intelligence, and harmony and beneficence of design in the Creator.

Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament.

Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament.[3]

By Professor Fisher, of Yale College.

It is well known to those who have attended to the subject of musical ratios, that a fixed scale of eight degrees to the octave, which shall render all its concords perfect, is impossible. It has been demonstrated by Dr. Smith, from an investigation of all the positions which the major, the minor, and the half-tone can assume, that the most perfect scales possible, of which there are two equally so, differing only in the position of the major and the minor tone above the key note, must have one Vth and one 3d too flat, and consequently the supplementary 4th and VIth too sharp, by a comma. In vocal music, and in that of perfect instruments, this defect in the scale is not perceived, because a small change may be made in the key, whenever the occurrence of either of those naturally imperfect intervals renders such a change necessary to perfect harmony. But in instruments with fixed scales, such as the guitar, the piano-forte, and the organ, if we begin with tuning as many concords as possible perfect, the resulting chords above-mentioned will be necessarily false in an offensive degree. Hence it is an important problem in practical harmonics, to distribute these imperfections in the scale among the different chords, in such a manner as to occasion the least possible injury to harmony.

But this is not the only nor the principal difficulty which the tuner of imperfect instruments has to encounter. In order that these instruments may form a proper accompaniment for the voice, and be used in conjunction with perfect instruments, it is necessary that music should be capable of being executed on them, in all the different keys in common use; and especially that they should be capable of those occasional modulations which often occur in the course of the same piece. Now only five additional sounds to the octave are usually inserted for this purpose, between those of the natural scale, which, of course, furnish it with only three sharps and two flats. Hence, when a greater number of flats or sharps is introduced, the music can be executed only by striking, in the former case, the sharp of the note next below; and, in the latter, the flat of the note next above. But as the diatonic semitone is more than half the major, and much more than half the minor tone, if the additional sounds in the common artificial scale be made perfect for one of the above employments, they must be extremely harsh for the other. Hence arises the necessity of adjusting the position of these five inserted sounds so that they may make tolerable harmony, whichever way employed. A change in these will require corresponding changes in the position of the several degrees of the natural scale; so that it is highly probable that the best scheme of temperament will leave no concord, either of the natural or artificial scale, absolutely perfect.

In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, the three following considerations have been usually taken into view.

I. One object to be aimed at is, to make the sum of the temperaments of all the concords the least possible. Since experience teaches us that the harshness of a given concord increases with its temperament, it is obvious that of two systems which agree in other respects, the best is that in which the sum of the temperaments is least.

II. When other things are equal, the best adjustment of the imperfections of the scale is that which diminishes the harmoniousness of all the different concords proportionally. The succession of a worse to a better harmony, is justly regarded by several of the best writers on this subject, as one of the principal causes of offence to the ear, in instruments imperfectly tuned.

III. When different chords of the same kind are of unequally frequent occurrence, there is an advantage, cæteris paribus, in giving the greatest temperament to that which occurs most seldom. This important consideration has indeed been neglected by Dr. Smith, in the systems which he recommends, both for his changeable and the common fixed scale; as it is, also, by the numerous advocates of the system of equal semitones. But many authors on temperament, and most instrument-makers, pay a vague regard to it. Their aim has been, although in a loose and conjectural manner, to make the prominent chords of the simplest keys the nearest to perfection, whilst a greater temperament is thrown upon those which occur only in the more complex keys. Thus Dr. Young, in the Philos. Trans. for 1800, recommends a scheme which increases the temperament of the IIIds, on the key note of the successive keys, as we modulate by fifths from C, nearly in arithmetical progression. Earl Stanhope assigns as a reason for the small temperament which is given to several of the IIIds in his system, that they are on the tonic of the simpler keys. The irregularities in Mr. Hawkes's scheme may be traced to the same cause. And, with the instrument-makers, it is a favourite maxim to lay the wolf, as they term it, where it will be most seldom heard.

But if the above consideration deserves any weight at all, it deserves to be accurately investigated. Not only ought the relative frequency of different chords to be ascertained with the greatest accuracy, of which the nature of the subject is susceptible, but the degree of weight which this consideration ought to have, when compared with the two others above-mentioned, should be determined: for it is plain that neither of them ought to be ever left out of view.

Accordingly, the principal design of the following propositions will be to investigate the actual frequency of occurrence of different chords in practice; and from this and the two other above-mentioned considerations united, to deduce the best system of temperament for a scale, containing any given number of sounds to the octave, and particularly for the common Douzeave, or scale of twelve degrees.

Proposition I.

All consonances may be regarded, without any sensible error in practice, as equally harmonious in their kinds, when equally tempered; and when unequally tempered, within certain limits, as having their harmoniousness diminished in the direct ratio of their temperaments.

As different consonances, when perfect, are not pleasing to the ear in an equal degree, some approaching nearer to the nature of discords than others, so a set of tempered consonances, cæteris paribus, will be best constituted when their harmoniousness is diminished proportionally. Suppose, for example, that the agreeable effects of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, when perfect, are as any unequal numbers, a, b, and c; the best arrangement of a tempered scale, other things being equal, would be, not that in which the agreeable effect of the Vth was reduced to an absolute level with that of the IIId, or 3d, but when they were so tempered that their agreeable effects on the ear might be expressed by m n  a,  m n  b,  m n  c.

That different consonances, in this sense, are equally harmonious in their kinds, when equally tempered, or, at least, sufficiently so for every practical purpose, may be illustrated in the following manner:

Let the lines AB, ab, represent the times of vibration of two tempered unisons. Whatever be the ratio of AB to ab, whether rational or irrational, it is obvious that the successive vibrations will alternately recede from and approach each other, till they very nearly coincide; and, that during one of these periods, the longer vibration, AB, has gained one of the shorter. Let the points, A, B, &c. represent the middle of the successive times of vibration of the lower; and a, b, &c. those of the higher of the tempered unisons. Let the arc AGN..VA be a part of a circle, representing one period of their pulses, and let the points A, a, be the middle points of the times of those vibrations which approach the nearest to a coincidence. It is obvious that the dislocations bB, cC, &c. of the successive pulses, increase in a ratio which is very nearly that of their distances from A, or a. Now if the pulses exactly coincided, the unisons would be perfect; and the same would be equally true, if the pulses of the one bisected, or divided in any other constant ratio, those of the other; as clearly appears from observation. It is, therefore, not the absolute magnitude, as asserted by Dr. Smith, but the variableness of the successive dislocations, Bb, Cc, &c. which renders the imperfect unisons discordant; and the magnitude of the successive increments of these dislocations is the measure of the degree of discordance heard in the unisons.

If now the time of vibration in each is doubled, AC, ac, &c. will represent the times of vibration of imperfect unisons an octave below, and the successive dislocations will be Cc, Ee, &c. only half as frequent as before. But the unisons AE, ae, will be equally harmonious with AB, ab; because, although the successive dislocations are less frequent than before, yet the coincidences C′c′, E′e′ of the corresponding perfect unisons are less frequent in the same ratio.

Suppose, in the second place, that the time of vibration is doubled, in only one of the unisons, ab; and that the times become AB and ac, or those of imperfect octaves. These will also be equally harmonious in their kind with the unisons AB, ab. For, although the dislocations Cc, Ee, &c. are but half as numerous as before, the coincidences of the corresponding perfect octaves will be but half as numerous. The dislocations which remain are the same as those of the imperfect unisons; and if some of the dislocations are struck out, and the increments of successive ones thus increased, no greater change is made in the nature of the imperfect than of the perfect consonance.

If, thirdly, we omit two-thirds of the pulses of the lower unison, retaining the octave ac of the last case, we shall have AD, ac, the times of vibration of imperfect Vths, to which, and to all other concords, the same reasoning may be applied as above. It may be briefly exhibited thus; since the intermission of the coincidences C′c′, E′e′ of the perfect unisons, an octave below A′B′, does not render the Vth A′D′G′ a′c′e′g′ less perfect than the unison A′c′ a′c′, each being perfect in its kind; so neither does the intermission of the corresponding dislocations Cc, Ee, of the tempered unisons, in the imperfect Vth, ADG, aceg, render it less harmonious in its kind than the tempered unison AB, ab, from which it is derived in exactly the same manner that the perfect Vth is derived from the perfect unison.

The consonances thus derived, as has been shown by Dr. Smith, will have the same periods, and consequently the same beats, with the imperfect unisons. It is obvious, likewise, that they will all be equally tempered. Let m AB, and n ab, be a general expression for the times of vibration of any such consonance. The tempering ratio of an imperfect consonance is always found by dividing the ratio of the vibrations of the imperfect by that of the corresponding perfect consonance. But m AB n ab   ÷ m n   = AB ab  ; which is evidently the tempering ratio of the imperfect unisons.

Hence, so far as any reasoning, founded on the abstract nature of coexisting pulses can be relied on, (for, in a case of this kind, rigid demonstration can scarcely be expected,) we are led to conclude that the harmoniousness of different consonances is proportionally diminished when they are equally tempered.

The remaining part of the proposition, viz. that consonances differently tempered have their harmoniousness diminished, or their harshness increased, in the direct ratio of their temperaments, will be evident, when we consider that the temperament of any consonance is the sole cause of its harshness, and that the effect ought to be proportioned to its adequate cause. We may add, that the rapidity of the beats, in a given consonance, increases very nearly in the ratio of the temperament; and universal experience shows, that increasing the rapidity of the beats of the same consonance, increases its harshness. This is on the supposition that the consonance is not varied so much as to interfere with any other whose ratio is equally simple.

Cor. We may hence infer, that in every system of temperament which preserves the octaves perfect, each consonance is equally harmonious, in its kind, with its complement to the octave, and its compounds with octaves. For the tempering ratio of the complement of any concord to the octave, is the same with that of the concord itself, differing only in its sign, which does not sensibly affect the harmony or the rate of beating; while the tempering ratio of the compounds with octaves is not only the same, but with the same sign.

Scholium 1.

There is no point in harmonics, concerning which theorists have been more divided in opinion than in regard to the true measure of equal harmony, in consonances of different kinds. Euler maintains, that the more simple a consonance is, the less temperament it will bear; and this seems to have ever been the general opinion of practical musicians.[4] Dr. Smith, on the contrary, asserts, and has attempted to demonstrate, that the simpler will bear a much greater temperament than the more complex consonances. The foregoing proposition has, at least, the merit of taking the middle ground between these discordant opinions. If admitted, it will greatly simplify the whole subject, and will reduce the labour of rendering all the concords in three octaves as equally harmonious as possible, which occupies so large a portion of Dr. Smith's volume, to a single short proposition. Dr. Smith's measure of equal harmony, viz. equal numbers of short cycles in the intervals between the successive beats, seems designed, not to render the different consonances proportionally harmonious, but to reduce the simpler to an absolute level, in point of agreeableness, with the more complex; which, as has been shown, is not the object to be aimed at in adjusting their comparative temperaments. But, in truth, his measure is far more favourable to the complex consonances than equal harmony, even in this sense, would require; and, in a great number of instances, leads to the grossest absurdities. Two consonances, according to him, are equally harmonious, when their temperaments are inversely as the products of the least numbers expressing their perfect ratio. If so, the VIII + 3d, whose ratio is ⁵/₁₂, when tempered ¹/₂₀ of a comma, and the unison, whose ratio is ¹/₁, when tempered 3 commas, are equally harmonious. But all who have the least experience in tempered consonances will pronounce, at once, that the former could scarcely be distinguished by the nicest ear from the corresponding perfect concord, while the latter would be a most offensive discord. One instance more shall suffice. The temperaments to render the VIII + Vth, and the VIII + 6th equally harmonious, are laid down in his tables to be as 80 : 3. We will now suppose an instrument perfectly tuned in Dr. Smith's manner, and furnished with all the additional sounds which constitute his changeable scale. In this system, the IIIds, and consequently the VIII + 6ths, are tempered ¹/₉ of a comma; which, so far from being offensive, will be positively agreeable to the ear. This cannot be doubted by those who admit that the VIII + 6ths in the common imperfect scales, when tempered at a medium nearly seven times as much, make tolerable harmony. Yet, according to the theory which we are opposing, the VIII + Vth will be equally harmonious when tempered nearly a minor semitone. Now let any one, even with the common instruments, whenever an VIII + Vth occurs, strike the semitone next above or below: for example, instead of playing C, g, let him play C, g

; instead of A, e, let him play A, e, &c. and compare the harmony of these with that of the VIII + 6ths, if he wants any farther evidence that Dr. Smith's measure of equal harmony is without foundation.

It may be thought, that even the measure of equal harmony laid down in the proposition, is more favourable to the complex consonances than the conclusions of experience will warrant. But when it is asserted by practical musicians, that the octave will bear less tempering than the Vth, the Vth less than the IIId, &c., they doubtless intend to estimate the temperament by the rate of beating, and to imply, that when different consonances to the same base are made to beat equally fast, the simpler are more offensive than the more complex consonances. This is entirely consistent with the proposition; for when equally tempered, the more complex consonances will beat more rapidly than the more simple; if on the same base, very nearly in the ratio of their major terms. (Smith's Har. Prop. XI. Cor. 4.) If, for example, an octave, a Vth, and a IIId on the same base were made to beat with a rapidity which is as the numbers 2, 3, and 5, no unprejudiced ear would probably pronounce the octave less harmonious in its kind than the IIId.

To those, on the other hand, who may incline to a measure of equal harmony between that laid down in the proposition and that of Dr. Smith, on account of the rapidity of the beats of the more complex consonances, it maybe sufficient to reply, that if the beats of a more complex consonance are more rapid than those of a simpler one, when both are equally tempered, those of the latter, cæteris paribus, are more distinct. It is the distinctness of the undulations, in tempered consonances, which is one of the principal causes of offence to the ear.

Scholium 2.

It will be proper to explain, in this place, the notation of musical intervals, which will be adopted in the following pages. It is well known that musical intervals are as the logarithms of their corresponding ratios. If, therefore, the octave be represented by .30103, the log. of 2, the value of the Vth will be expressed by .17509; that of the major tone by .05115; that of the comma by .00540, &c. But in order to avoid the prefixed ciphers, in calculations where so small intervals as the temperaments of different concords are concerned, we will multiply each of these values by 100,000, which will give a set of integral values having the same ratio. The octave will now become 30103, the comma 540, &c.; and, in general, when temperaments are hereafter expressed by numbers, they are to be considered as so many 540ths of a comma. Had more logarithmic places been taken, the intervals would have been expressed with greater accuracy; but it was supposed that the additional accuracy would not compensate for the increased labour of computation which it would occasion. This notation has been adopted by Dr. Robinson, in the article Temperament, (Encyc. Brit. Supplement;) and for every practical purpose, is as much superior to that proposed by Mr. Farey, in parts of the Schisma, lesser fraction and minute,[5] as all decimal measures necessarily are, to those which consist of different denominations.

Proposition II.

In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, so as to render all the consonances as equally harmonious as possible, only the simple consonances, such as the Vth, IIId, and 3d, with their complements to and compounds with the octave, can be regarded.

It has been generally assigned as the reason for neglecting the consonances, usually termed discords, in ascertaining the best scheme of temperament, that they are of less frequent occurrence than the concords. This, however, if it were the only reason, would lead us, not to neglect them entirely, but merely to give them a less degree of influence than the concords, in proportion as they are less used.

A consideration which seems not to have been often noticed, renders it impossible to pay them any regard in harmonical computations. All such computations must proceed on the supposition that within the limits to which the temperaments of the different consonances extend, they become harsher as their temperaments are increased. It is evident that any consonance may be tempered so much as to become better by having its temperament increased, in consequence of its approaching as near to some other perfect ratio, the terms of which are equally small; or perhaps much nearer some perfect ratio whose terms are not proportionally larger. For example, after we have sharpened the Vth more than 3 commas, it becomes more harmonious, as approaching much nearer to the perfect ratio ⁵/₆. In this, however, and the other concords, the value of the nearest perfect ratios in small numbers, varies so much from the ratios of these concords, and the consequent limits within which the last part of Prop. I. holds true, are so wide that there is no hazard in making it a basis of calculation. And if there be a few exceptions to this, in some systems, in which the temperaments of a few of the concords become so large as to approach nearer to some other perfect ratio, whose terms are nearly as small as those of the perfect concord, although they might become more harmonious, by having their temperament increased, yet their effect in melody would be still more impaired; so that the concords may all be considered as subjected to the same rule of calculation.

But the limits within which the second part of Prop. I. holds true, with regard to the more complex consonances, are much more limited. We cannot, for instance, sharpen the 7th, whose ratio is 9 : 16 more than ½ a comma, without rendering it more harmonious, as approaching nearer another perfect ratio which is simpler; that of 5 : 9. Yet the difference between these two 7ths is so trifling that they have never received distinct names; and, indeed, their effect on the ear in melody would not be sensibly different.

Again, the 5th, whose perfect ratio has been generally laid down as 45 : 64, but which is in reality 25 : 36,[6] cannot be sharpened more than ⅓ of a comma, before it becomes more harmonious by having its temperament increased, as approaching nearer the simpler ratio 7 : 10. At the same time, the effect of this interval in melody would not be sensibly varied. The limits, within which the harmoniousness of the IVth is inversely as its temperament, are still narrower.

Hence it appears that no inference can be drawn from the temperaments of such consonances as the 7th, 5th, IVth, &c. respecting their real harmoniousness. The other perfect ratios which have nearly the same value with those of these chords, and which are in equally simple terms, are so numerous that by increasing their temperament they alternately become more and less harmonious; and in a manner so irregular, that to attempt to subject them to calculation, with the concords, would be in vain. Even when unaltered, they may be considered either as greater temperaments of more simple, or less temperaments of more complex ratios. Suppose the 5th, for example, to be flattened ⅕ of a comma: shall it be considered as deriving its character from the perfect ratio 25 : 36, and be regarded as flattened 108; or shall it be referred to the perfect ratio 7 : 10, and considered as sharpened 239? No one can tell.—On the whole, it is manifest that no consonances more complex than those included in the proposition, can be regarded in adjusting the temperaments of the scale.

Proposition III.

The best scale of sounds, which renders the harmony of all the concords as nearly equal as possible, is that in which the Vths are flattened ²/₇, and the IIIds and 3ds, each ¹/₇ of a comma.

The octave must be kept perfect, for reasons which have satisfied all theoretical and practical harmonists, how widely soever their opinions have differed in other respects. Admitting equal temperament to be the measure of equal harmony, the complements of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, to the octave, and their compounds with octaves will be equally harmonious in their kinds with these concords respectively; according to the corollary of Prop I.

Hence we have only to find those temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds, in the compass of one octave, which will render them all, as nearly as possible, equally harmonious. The temperaments of the different concords of the same name ought evidently to be rendered equal; since, otherwise, their harmony cannot be equal. This can be effected only by rendering the major and minor tones equal, and preserving the equality of the two semitones. If this is done, the temperament of all the IIIds will be equal, since they will each be the sum of two equal tones. For a similar reason the 3ds, and consequently the Vths, formed by the addition of IIIds, and 3ds, will be equally tempered.

In order to reduce the octave to five equal and variable tones, and two equal and variable semitones, we will suppose the intervals of the untempered octave to be represented by the parts CD, DE, &c. of the line Cc. Denoting the comma by c, we will suppose the tone DE, which is naturally minor, to be increased by any variable quantity, x; then, by the foregoing observations, the other minor tone, GA, must be increased by the same quantity. As the major tones must be rendered equal to the minor, their increment will be x – c. As the octave is to be perfect, the variation of the two semitones must be the same with that of the five tones, with the contrary sign; and as they are to be equally varied, the decrement of each will be 5x – 3c     2       ; or what amounts to the same thing, the increment of each will be 3c – 5x     2      .

The several concords of the same name in this octave are now affected with equal and variable temperaments. The common increment of the IIIds will be 2x – c; that of the 3ds ½ · c – 3x; and consequently that of the Vths ½ · x – c.

In adjusting these variable temperaments, so as to render the harmony of the concords of different kinds, as nearly equal as possible, we immediately discover that, as the Vth is composed of the IIId and 3d, the temperaments of the three cannot all be equal. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have the same sign, that of the Vths must be equal to their sum; and, when they have contrary signs, to their difference. Hence the temperament of one of these three concords is necessarily equal to the sum of that of the other two. This being fixed, the temperaments, and consequently, (by Prop. I.) the discordance of the different consonances is the most equably divided possible, when the two smaller temperaments, whose sum is equal to the greater, are made equal to each other. The problem contains three cases.

1. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have the same sign, they ought to be equal to each other. Making 2x – c = ½ · c – 3x, we obtain x = ³/₇ c, which, substituted in the general expressions for the temperaments of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, makes their increments equal to –²/₇ c, –¹/₇ c, –¹/₇ c, respectively.

2. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary signs: and first, let that of the IIIds be the greater. Then the former ought to be double of the latter, in order that the temperament of the Vths and and 3ds may be equal. Hence we have 2x – c = – 2 · ½ · c – 3x; whence x is found = 0; and by substitution as before, the required temperament of the IIId = – c; of the Vth – ½ c, and of the 3d ½ c.

3. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary signs, as before; and let that of the 3d be the greater. Making ½ · c – 3x = –2 · 2x – c, we obtain x = ³/₅ c; which gives, by substitution, the temperaments of the 3d, Vth, and IIId – ²/₅ c, – ¹/₅ c, and ¹/₅ c, respectively.

Each of these results makes the harmony of all the consonances as nearly equal as possible; but as the sum of the temperaments in the first case is much the least, it follows that the temperaments stated in the proposition constitute the best scheme of intervals for the natural scale, in which the harmony of all the different consonances is rendered as nearly equal as possible.

Cor. 1. In the same manner it may be shown that these temperaments are the best, among those which approach as nearly as possible to equal harmony, for the artificial scale; provided that it is furnished with distinct sounds for all the sharps and flats in common use. By inserting a sound between F and G, making the interval F

G equal to either of the semitones found above, the intervals, reckoned from G as a key note, will be exactly the same in respect to their temperaments, as the corresponding ones reckoned from C. The same thing holds, whatever be the number of flats and sharps. It is supposed, however, that the flat of a note is never used for the sharp of that next below, or the contrary; and hence this scheme of temperament would only be adapted to an instrument, furnished with all the degrees of the enharmonic scale; or, at least, with as many as are in common use.

Cor. 2. This scale will differ but little in practice from the one deduced, with so much labour, by Dr. Smith, from his criterion of equal harmony; which flattens the Vths ⁵/₁₈, the IIIds ¹/₉, and the 3ds ¹/₆ of a comma. The several differences are only ¹/₁₂₆, ²/₆₃, and ¹/₄₂ of a comma. Hence, as his measure of equal harmony differs so widely from that of Proposition I. we may infer that the consideration of equalizing the harmony of the concords of different names can have very little practical influence on the temperaments of the scale. Should it, therefore, be maintained that the criterion laid down in Prop. I. is not mathematically accurate; yet, as it must be allowed, in the most unfavourable view, to correspond far better with the decisions of experience than that of Doctor Smith, the chance is, that, at the lowest estimate, the temperaments deduced from it approach much more nearly to correctness. Hence it is manifest that equal temperament may be made, without any sensible error in practice, the criterion of equal harmony.

Scholium 3.

Although the foregoing would be the best division of the musical scale, if our sole object were to render the harmony of its concords as nearly equal as possible, yet the two other considerations, stated at the beginning of the essay, must by no means be neglected, as has been done by Dr. Smith. It seems to be universally admitted, that the sum of the temperaments may be increased to a certain extent, in order to equalize the harmony of the concords; otherwise the natural scale of major and minor tones, which makes the sum of the temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds but 2 commas, ought to be left unaltered. Yet how far this principle ought to be carried, may be a matter of doubt. If we make the IIIds perfect, and flatten the Vths and 3ds each ¼ c, according to the old system of mean tones, we shall have the smallest aggregate of temperaments which admits of the different concords of the same name being rendered equally imperfect; but this amounts to 2½ commas. Thus far, however, it seems evidently proper to proceed. If we go still farther, and endeavour to equalize the harmony of the concords of different names, it may be questioned whether nearly as much is not lost as gained; for the aggregate temperaments are increased, in Dr. Smith's scale, to 2⅔ c, and in that of the above proposition to 2⁵/₇ c. The system of mean tones, although more unequal in its harmony when but two notes are struck at once, yet when the chords are played full, as they generally are on the organ, never offends the ear by a transition from a better to a worse harmony. For every triad is equally harmonious; being composed of a perfect IIId, and a Vth and 3d, tempered each ¼ c, or of their complements to, or compounds with octaves, which, in their kinds, are equally harmonious.

Again, if different chords, in practice, vary in the frequency of their occurrence, this will be a sufficient reason for deviating from the system of equal temperament. Suppose, for example, that a given sum of temperament is to be divided between two Vths, one of which occurs in playing ten times as often as the other: there can be no doubt that the greater part of the temperament ought to be thrown upon the latter. Hence it becomes an important problem to ascertain, with some degree of precision, the relative frequency with which different consonances occur in practice. Before proceeding to a direct investigation of this problem, it may be observed, in general, that such a difference manifestly exists. In a given key, it cannot have escaped the most superficial observer, that the most frequent combination of sounds is the common chord on the tonic; that the next after this is that on the dominant, and the third, that on the subdominant. Perhaps scarcely a piece of music can be found, in which this order of frequency does not hold true. It is equally true that some signatures occur oftener than others. That of one sharp will be found to be more used, in the major mode, than any other; and, in general, the more simple keys will be found of more frequent occurrence than those which have more flats or sharps. These differences are not the result of accident. The tonic, dominant, and subdominant, are obviously the most prominent notes in the scale, and must always be the fundamental bases of more chords than either of the others; while the greater ease of playing on the simpler keys will always be a reason with composers for setting a larger part of their music on these, than on the more difficult keys. It is observable, that the greater part of musical compositions, whether of the major or minor mode, is reducible to two kinds: that in which the base chiefly moves between the tonic and its octave, and that in which the base moves between the dominant and subdominant of the key. The former class, in the major mode, are almost universally set on the key of one sharp; the latter, generally on the natural key, or that of two sharps. In the minor mode, the former class have usually the signature of two flats, or the natural key; the latter, that of one flat. Hence the three former keys will comprise the greater part of the music in the major mode, and the three latter, of that in the minor mode, in every promiscuous collection. But if we were even to suppose each of the chords in the same key, and each of the signatures, of equally frequent occurrence, some chords would occur much oftener, as forming an essential part of the harmony of more keys than others. The Vth DA, for example, forms one of the essential chords of six different keys; while the Vth G

D forms a part only of the single key of four sharps.

Proposition IV.

To find a set of numbers, expressing the ratio of the probable number of times that each of the different consonances in the scale will occur, in any set of musical compositions.

This can be done only by investigating their actual frequency of occurrence in a collection of pieces for the instrument to be tuned, sufficiently extensive and diversified to serve as a specimen of music for the same instrument in general. This may appear, at first view, an endless task; and it would be really such, were we to take music promiscuously, and count all the consonances which the base makes with the higher parts, and the higher parts with each other. But it appears, from Prop. I. Cor. that all the positions and inversions of a chord, when the octaves are kept perfect, are equally harmonious with the chord itself. The Vth, for example, which makes one of the consonances in a common harmonic triad, is equally harmonious in its kind, with the V + VIII, which takes its place in the 3d position of this triad, and with the 4th in its second inversion. Hence, instead of counting single consonances, we have only to count chords; and this is done with the greatest ease, by means of the figures of the thorough base. The labour will be still farther abridged by reducing the derivative chords, such as the 6, the ⁶/₄, &c. to their proper roots, as they are taken down. But even after these reductions, the labour of numbering the different chords in a sufficiently extensive set of compositions, to establish, with any degree of certainty, the relative frequency of the different signatures, would be very irksome. A method, however, presents itself, which renders it sufficient to examine the chords in such a set of pieces only as will give their chance of occurrence in two keys—a major, and its relative minor.

It will be evident to all who are much conversant with musical compositions, that the internal structure of all pieces in the same mode, whatever be their signature, is much the same. There is scarcely more difference, for example, in the relative frequency of different chords in the natural key, and in that of two sharps, or two flats, than there is in different pieces on the same key. If the Vth CG on the tonic has to the Vth EB on the mediant in the natural key, any given ratio of frequency m : n, the relative frequency of the Vth DA on the tonic, and the Vth F

C on the mediant in the key of two sharps, will not sensibly differ from that of m : n. Hence, if we examine a sufficient number of pieces to establish the relative frequency of the different consonances in one major and its relative minor key, and, by a much more extensive investigation, ascertain the relative frequency of occurrence of the different signatures, it is evident, that by multiplying this last series of numbers into the first, and adding those products which belong to chords terminated by the same letters, we shall have a series of numbers expressing the chance of occurrence in favour of each of the consonances of the scale, when all the keys are taken into view.

It was judged that 200 scores, taken promiscuously from all the varieties of music for the organ,[7] would afford a set of numbers expressing, with sufficient accuracy, the chance that a given consonance will occur in a single major, and its relative minor key. Accordingly 200 scores were examined, 150 in the major, and 50 in the minor mode, (as it will appear hereafter that this is nearly the ratio of their frequency) of the various species of music for the organ, comprising a proper share both of the simpler and of the more rapid and chromatic movements. As the selecting and reducing to their proper keys all the occasional modulations which occur in the same piece would render the labour of ascertaining the relative frequency of different signatures very tedious, it was thought best to consider all those modulations which are too transient to be indicated by a new signature, as belonging to the same key. This will account for the occurrence of the chords in the following table, which are affected by flats and sharps.

The minim, or the crotchet, was taken for unity, according to the rapidity of the movement. Bases of greater or less length had their proper values assigned them; although mere notes of passage, which bore no proper harmony, were generally disregarded. The scores were taken promiscuously from all the different keys; and were reduced, when taken down, to the same tonic; the propriety of which will evidently appear from the foregoing remarks. The following table contains the result of the investigation.

TABLE I.

Bases.

Common Chords.

Flat Fifths.

7ths.

9-sevenths.

Major

Minor

Major.

Minor.

Major.

Minor.

Major.

Minor.

mode.

mode.

B III

5

8

—

—

7

—

—

—

B

3

—

163

55

11

17

2

—

B

4

4

—

—

—

—

—

—

A VII

—

—

—

—

—

—

3

—

A III

19

8

—

—

7

2

—

—

A

166

588

2

1

26

5

2

—

G

—

—

3

38

—

—

—

—

G 3

18

15

—

—

—

—

—

—

G

965

93

—

—

178

15

3

—

F

—

—

46

4

11

2

—

—

F

352

60

—

—

11

12

7

3

E III

26

271

—

—

1

25

—

—

E

32

25

5

1

8

—

1

4

D

III

—

—

2

1

—

—

—

—

D

—

—

—

4

—

—

—

—

D III

29

4

—

—

49

7

—

—

D

120

129

—

—

55

18

6

1

C

—

—

2

4

1

—

—

—

C 3

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

C

1769

275

—

—

5

1

4

1

The following anomalous chords were found in the major mode, and are subjoined, to make the list complete:

8

5ths on C, and 1 on D.
5 ⁵/₄ths on D, 2 on E, and 1 on G.

The left hand column of the foregoing table contains the fundamental bases of the several chords. When any number is annexed to the letter denoting the fundamental, it denotes the quality of some other note belonging to the chord. E III, for example, denotes that the various chords on E, which stand against it, have their third sharped; G 3, that the third, which is naturally major, is to be taken minor, &c. Of the two columns in each of the four remaining pairs, the left contains the number of chords belonging to each root, of the kind specified at the top, which were found in 150 scores in the major mode; and the right, the corresponding results of the examination of 50 scores in the minor mode. The diminished triad, which is used in harmonical progression like the other triads, has its lowest note considered as its fundamental. The diminished 7th, in the few instances in which it occurred, was considered as the first inversion of the ⁹/₇th, agreeably to the French classification, and was accordingly reduced to that head.

From this table, the number of times that each consonance of two notes would actually occur, were the 200 scores played, is easily computed. We will suppose three notes, besides octaves, to be played to each chord. The octaves played it is unnecessary to take into the computation, as it would only multiply the number of consonances whose temperament is the same, in the same ratio, and would have no effect on the ratio of the numbers expressing the frequency of the different consonances. In the chord of the 7th, which naturally consists of four notes, we will suppose, for the sake of uniformity, that one is omitted; and as the 7th ought always to be struck, we will suppose the Vth and IIId of the base to be omitted, each half the number of times in which this chord occurs. Considered as composed of three distinct notes, neither of which is an octave of either of the others, each chord will contain three distinct consonances. The common chord on C, for example, will contain the Vth CG, the IIId CE, and the 3d EG. The ⁹/₇ on C will contain the VII CB, the IX, or (which must have the same temperament) the IId CD, and the 3d BD. Reducing all these consonances to their proper places, and adding those of the same name which have the same degree for their base, we obtain the following results:

TABLE II.

Bases.

Vths, 4ths, and

Octaves.

IIIds, 6ths, and

Octaves.

3ds, VIths, and

Octaves.

Major.

 

Minor.

Major.

Minor.

Major.

Minor.

B

8

8

10

8

1141

214

B

3

6

22

19

——

——

A

195

607

22

10

626

663

G

——

——

——

——

32

310

G

1088

116

1090

125

22

23

F

——

——

——

——

78

10

F

395

78

486

301

——

——

E

59

308

40

284

1828

308

E

——

——

2

——

——

——

D

——

——

——

——

7

9

D

197

156

60

7

403

213

C

——

——

——

——

26

12

C

1807

278

1959

870

4

1

Bases.

5ths, IVths, and

Octaves.

7ths, IIds, and

Octaves.

VIIths, 2ds, and

Octaves.

Major.

 

Minor.

Major.

Minor.

Major.

Minor.

B

256

265

25

17

——

——

B

——

——

——

——

——

——

A

2

1

34

7

3

——

G

10

53

——

——

——

——

G

——

——

188

20

——

——

F

74

7

1

2

——

——

F

——

——

——

——

17

16

E

10

1

20

27

——

——

E

——

——

——

——

——

——

D

7

5

——

——

——

——

D

——

——

123

27

——

——

C

9

10

1

——

——

——

C

——

——

5

1

10

1

Besides the following chromatic intervals:

{

8 extreme sharp 5ths on C

Major mode.

{

1 ————————— D

{

1 extreme flat 7th —— G

{

4 extreme sharp 6ths on F

Minor mode.

{

4 extreme flat 7ths on C

{

3 ————————— G

It was thought best to exhibit a complete table of all the consonances which occurred in the 200 scores examined; although (Prop. II.) only the concords in the upper half of the table can be regarded in forming a system of temperament. For the more frequent consonances, this table may be regarded as founded on a sufficiently extensive induction to be tolerably accurate. For the more unfrequent chords, and especially for those which arise from unusual modulations, it expresses the chance of occurrence with very little accuracy; and it is doubtless the fact that a more extensive investigation would include some chords not found at all in this list. But it must be recollected, on the other hand, that the influence of these unusual chords on the resulting system of temperament would be insensible, could their chance of occurrence be determined with the greatest accuracy.

But none of the numbers in the foregoing table by any means expresses the chance that a given interval will occur, considering all the keys in which it is found. For example, the Vth CG on the tonic of the natural key, in music written on this key, is the one of most frequent occurrence, its chance being expressed by 1807; but in the key of two flats, it becomes the Vth on the supertonic, and its chance of occurrence is only as 197. Hence the problem can be completed only by finding a set of numbers which shall express, with some degree of accuracy, the relative frequency of different signatures.

An examination of 1600 scores, comprising four entire collections of music for the organ and voice, by the best European composers, besides many miscellaneous pieces, afforded the results in the following table:

TABLE III.

Signatures.

 

Major Mode.

Minor Mode.

4

s

42

2

3

s

95

6

2

s

200

13

1

322

72

176

121

1

180

97

2

s

70

77

3

s

116

8

4

s  

0

3

Ratio of their sums 1201 :

399

The chance of occurrence for any chord varies as the frequency of the key to which it belongs, and as the number belonging to the place which it holds, as referred to the tonic, in Table II., jointly. Hence the chance of its occurrence in all the keys in which it is found, is as the sum of the products of the numbers in Table III., each into such a number of Table II. as corresponds to its place in that key. To give a specimen of the manner in which this calculation is to be conducted, the numbers belonging to the major mode in the three first divisions of Table II. are first to be multiplied throughout by 176, which expresses the relative frequency of the major mode of the natural key. They are then to be multiplied throughout by 322, which expresses the frequency of the key of one sharp. But the first product, which expresses the frequency of the Vth on the tonic, now becomes GD, and must be added, not to the first, but to the fifth, in the last row of products. The product into 59, expressing the frequency of the Vth on the mediant, becomes BF

, an interval not found among the essential chords of the natural key. In general, the products of the numbers in Table III. into those in Table II. are to be considered as belonging, not to the letters against which these multipliers stand, but to those which have the same position with regard to their successive tonics, as these have with regard to C. Whenever an interval occurs, affected with a new flat or sharp, it is to be considered as the commencement of a new succession of products. The IIId CE, for example, does not occur at all till we come to the key of two sharps, and even then only in occasional modulations, corresponding to the IIId on B in the natural key, whose multiplier is 10. In the key of 3 sharps it becomes another accidental chord, answering to the IIId on E in the key of C, and consequently has 40 for its multiplier. It is only in the key of 6 sharps, that it becomes a constituent chord of the key; when if that key were ever used, it would correspond to the IIId GB on the dominant of the natural key.

After all the products have been taken and reduced to their proper places, in the manner exemplified above, a similar operation must be repeated with the numbers in the second column of Table III. and those in the second columns in the three first divisions of Table II.

The necessity of keeping the major, and its relative minor key, distinct, will be evident, when we consider that the several keys in the minor mode do not follow the same law of frequency as in the major; as is manifest from the observations in Schol. Prop. III. and as clearly appears from an inspection of Table III.

But in order to discover the relative frequency of the different chords on every account, the results of the two foregoing operations must be united. Now, as the numbers in the two columns of Table II. at a medium, are as 3 : 1, and those in Table III. are in the same ratio, although the factors are to each other in only the simple ratio of the relative frequency of the two modes, yet their products will, at a medium, be in the duplicate ratio of that frequency. Hence, to render the two sets of results homologous, so that those which correspond to the same interval may be properly added, to express the general chance of occurrence for that interval in all the major and minor keys in which it is found, this duplicate ratio must be reduced to a simple one, either by dividing the first, or by multiplying the last series of results, by 3. We will do the latter, as it will give the ratios in the largest, and, of course, the most accurate terms. Then adding those results in each which belong to the same interval, and cutting off the three right hand figures, (expressing in the nearest small fractions those results which are under 1000) which will leave a set of ratios abundantly accurate for every purpose; the numbers constituting the final solution of the problem will stand as follows:

TABLE IV.

Bases.

Vths and

4ths.

IIIds and

6ths.

3ds and

VIths.

Bases.

Vths and

4ths.

IIIds and

6ths.

3ds and

VIths.

F

67

29

1072

B

——

——

4

F

639

924

66

B

221

135

1161

E

——

——

12

B

418

654

5

E

548

323

1151

A

——

——

29

E

265

363

½

A

870

568

1085

D

⅓

½

144

A

52

78

⅕

D

1166

943

569

G

5

4

365

D

1

6

——

G

1207

1197

567

C

25

12

581

F

——

——

¼

C

816

1131

180

G

——

½

——

Note.   In this table, as well as the last, the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds are to be taken above, and the 4ths, 6ths, and VIths, their complements to the octave, below the corresponding degrees in the first column. And, in general, whenever the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds are hereafter treated as different classes of concords, each will be understood to include its complement to the octave and its compounds with octaves.

Scholium.

The foregoing table exhibits, with sufficient accuracy, the ratio of the whole number of times which the different chords would occur, were the 1600 scores, whose signatures were examined, actually played in succession, on the keys to which they are set, and with an instrument having distinct sounds for all the flats and sharps. Had the examination been more extensive, the results might be relied on with greater assurance as accurate; but the general similarity, not only in the structure of different musical compositions, but in the comparative frequency of the different keys in different authors; is so great, that a more extensive examination was thought to be of little practical importance.

(To be continued.)

Art. II. Review of an elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology.

Art. II. Review of an elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology, being an introduction to the study of these sciences, and designed for the use of pupils; for persons attending lectures on these subjects; and as a companion for travellers in the United States of America—Illustrated by six plates. By Parker Cleaveland, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Mineralogy in Bowdoin College, Member of the American Academy, and Corresponding Member of the Linnæan Society of New England.

—— itum est in viscera terræ:

Quasque recondiderat, Stygiisque admoverat umbris,

Effodiuntur opes —— Ovid.

Boston, published by Cummings and Hilliard, No. 1, Cornhill. Printed by Hilliard & Metcalf, at the University Press, Cambridge, New England. 1816.

This work has been for some time before the public, and it has been more or less the subject of remark in our various journals. It is, however, so appropriate to the leading objects of this Journal, that we cannot consider ourselves as performing labours of supererogation while we consider the necessity, plan, and execution of the treatise of Professor Cleaveland.

An extensive cultivation of the physical sciences is peculiar to an advanced state of society, and evinces, in the country where they flourish, a highly improved state of the arts, and a great degree of intelligence in the community. To this state of things we are now fast approximating. The ardent curiosity regarding these subjects, already enkindled in the public mind, the very respectable attainments in science which we have already made, and our rapidly augmenting means of information in books, instruments, collections, and teachers, afford ground for the happiest anticipations.

Those sciences which require no means for their investigation beyond books, teachers, and study—those which demand no physical demonstrations, no instruments of research, no material specimens: we mean those sciences which relate only to the intellectual and moral character of man, were early fostered, and, in a good degree, matured in this country. Hence, in theology, in ethics, in jurisprudence, and in civil policy, our advances were much earlier, and more worthy of respect, than in the sciences relating to material things. In some of these, it is true, we have made very considerable advances, especially in natural philosophy and the mathematics, and their applications to the arts; and this has been true, in some good degree, for very nearly a century. Natural history has been the most tardy in its growth, and no branch of it was, till within a few years, involved in such darkness as mineralogy. Notwithstanding the laudable efforts of a few gentlemen to excite some taste for these subjects, so little had been effected in forming collections, in kindling curiosity, and diffusing information, that only fifteen years since, it was a matter of extreme difficulty to obtain, among ourselves, even the names of the most common stones and minerals; and one might inquire earnestly, and long, before he could find any one to identify even quartz, feldspar, or hornblende, among the simple minerals; or granite, porphyry, or trap, among the rocks. We speak from experience, and well remember with what impatient, but almost despairing curiosity, we eyed the bleak, naked ridges, which impended over the valleys and plains that were the scenes of our youthful excursions. In vain did we doubt whether the glittering spangles of mica, and the still more alluring brilliancy of pyrites, gave assurance of the existence of the precious metals in those substances; or whether the cutting of glass by the garnet, and by quartz, proved that these minerals were the diamond; but if they were not precious metals, and if they were not diamonds, we in vain inquired of our companions, and even of our teachers, what they were.

We do not forget that Dr. Adam Seybert, in Philadelphia; Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, in New-York; and Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse, in Harvard University, began at an earlier period to enlighten the public on this subject; they began to form collections; Harvard received a select cabinet from France and England; and Mr. Smith, of Philadelphia, (although, returning from Europe fraught with scientific acquisitions, he perished tragically near his native shores,) left his collection to enrich the Museum of the American Philosophical Society.

Still, however, although individuals were enlightened, no serious impression was produced on the public mind; a few lights were indeed held out, but they were lights twinkling in an almost impervious gloom.

The return of the late Benjamin D. Perkins, and of the late Dr. A. Bruce, from Europe, in 1802 and 3, with their collections, then the most complete and beautiful that this country had ever seen; the return of Colonel Gibbs, in 1805, with his extensive and magnificent cabinet; his consequent excursions and researches into our mineralogy; the commencement, about this time, of courses of lectures on mineralogy, in several of our colleges, and of collections by them and by many individuals; the return of Mr. Maclure, in 1807; his Herculean labour in surveying the United States geologically, by personal examination; and the institution of the American Journal of Mineralogy, by Dr. Bruce, in 1810;—these are among the most prominent events, which, in the course of a few years, have totally changed the face of this science in the United States.

During the last ten years, it has been cultivated with great ardour, and with great success: many interesting discoveries in American mineralogy have been made; and this science, with its sister science, Geology, is fast arresting the public attention. In such a state of things, books relating to mineralogy would of course be eagerly sought for.

No work, anterior to Kirwan, could be consulted by the student with much advantage, on account of the wonderful progress, which, within forty or fifty years, has been made in mineralogy. Even Kirwan, who performed a most important service to the science, was become, in some considerable degree, imperfect and obsolete; the German treatises, the fruitful fountains from which the science had flowed over Europe, were not translated; neither were those of the French; and this was the more to be regretted, because they had mellowed down the harshness and enriched the sterility of the German method of description, besides adding many interesting discoveries of their own. It is true we possessed the truly valuable treatise of Professor Jameson, the most complete in our language. But the expense of the work made it unattainable by most of our students, and the undeviating strictness with which the highly respectable author has adhered to the German mode of description, gave it an aspect somewhat repulsive to the minds of novices, who consulted no other book. We are, however, well aware of the value of this work, especially in the improved edition. It must, without doubt, be in the hands of every one who would be master of the science; but it is much better adapted to the purposes of proficients than of beginners.

The mineralogical articles dispersed through Aikin's Dictionary are exceedingly valuable; but, from the high price of the work, they are inaccessible to most persons.

The most recent of the French systems, that by Brongniart, seemed to combine nearly all the requisites that could be desired in an elementary treatise; and a translation of it would probably, ere this, have been given to the American public, had we not been led to expect the work of Professor Cleaveland, which, it was anticipated, would at least possess one important advantage over the work of Brongniart, and every other; it would exhibit, more or less extensively, American localities, and give the leading features of our natural mineral associations.

Thus it appears[8] that the work of Professor Cleaveland was eminently needed; the science, at large, needed it; and to American mineralogists it was nearly indispensable. It appeared too at a very opportune moment. Had it come a few years sooner, it might not have found many readers. Now it is sustained by the prevailing curiosity, and diffused state of information regarding mineralogy; and, in turn, no cause could operate more effectually to cherish this curiosity, and to diffuse this information still more widely, than this book. Professor Cleaveland is therefore entitled to our thanks for undertaking this task; and, in this age of book-making, it is no small negative praise if an author be acquitted of unnecessarily adding to the already onerous mass of books.

With respect to the PLAN of this work, Professor Cleaveland has, with good judgment, availed himself of the excellencies of both the German and French schools.

Mr. Werner, of Fribourg, in some sense not only the founder of the modern German school of mineralogy, but almost of the science itself, is entitled to our lasting gratitude for his system of external characters, first published in 1774. In this admirable treatise he has combined precision and copiousness, so that exact ideas are attached to every part of the descriptive language, and every character is meant to be defined.

It is intended that a full description of a mineral upon this plan shall entirely exhaust the subject, and that although many properties may be found in common among different minerals, still every picture shall contain peculiar features, not to be found in any other. It would certainly appear, at first view, that this method must be perfect, and leave nothing farther to be desired. It has, however, been found in practice, that the full descriptions of the Wernerian writers are heavy and dry; they are redundant also, from the frequent repetition of similar properties; and from not giving due prominence to those which are peculiar, and therefore distinctive, they frequently fail to leave a distinct impression of any thing on the mind, and thus, in the midst of what is called by the writers of this school a full oryctognostic picture, a student is sometimes absolutely bewildered.

Some of the modern French writers, availing themselves of Mr. Werner's very able delineation of the external characters of minerals, have selected such as are most important, most striking, distinctive, and interesting; and drawing a spirited and bold sketch, have left the minuter parts untouched: such a picture, although less perfect, often presents a stronger likeness, and more effectually arrests the attention.

This is the method of description which has been, as we think, happily adopted, to a great extent by Mr. Cleaveland.

Mr. Werner, availing himself of the similarities in the external appearance of minerals, has (excepting the metals) arranged them also upon this plan, without regard to their constitution; that is, to their real nature, or, at least, making this wholly subservient to the other: this has caused him, in some instances, to bring together things which are totally unlike in their nature, and, in other instances, to separate those which were entirely similar. Whatever may be said in favour of such a course, considered as a provisional one, while chemical analysis was in its infancy, the mind can never rest satisfied with any arrangement which contradicts the real nature of things; in a word, the composition of minerals is the only correct foundation for their classification. This classification has been adopted by several of the ablest modern French writers.

"It is believed," (says Professor Cleaveland, Preface, p. 7.) "that the more valuable parts of the two systems may be incorporated, or, in other words, that the peculiar descriptive language of the one may, in a certain degree, be united to the accurate and scientific arrangement of the other.

"This union of descriptive language and scientific arrangement has been effected with good success, by Brongniart, in his System of Mineralogy—an elementary work, which seems better adapted both to interest and instruct, than any which has hitherto appeared. The author of this volume has, therefore, adopted the general plan of Brongniart, the more important parts of whose work are, of course, incorporated with this."

A happier model could not, in our opinion, be chosen; and we conceive that Professor Cleaveland is perfectly consistent, and perfectly perspicuous, when, adopting the chemical composition of minerals as the only proper foundation of arrangement, and, of course, rejecting the principle of Mr. Werner, which arranges them upon their external properties, he still adopts his descriptive language as far as it answers his purpose. For to elect a principle of arrangement, and to classify all the members of a system so as to give each its appropriate place, is obviously quite a different thing from describing each member, after its place in a system is ascertained. In doing the latter, characters may be drawn from any source which affords them.

In his "Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy," the author has given a view at once copious, condensed, and perspicuous, of all that is necessary to be learned previously to the study of particular minerals. He begins with definitions and general principles, which are laid down with clearness.

By way of engaging the attention to the study of this department of nature, he remarks:

"From a superficial view of minerals in their natural depositories, at or near the surface of the earth, it would hardly be expected that they could constitute the object of a distinct branch of science. Nothing appears farther removed from the influence of established principles and regular arrangement, than the mineral kingdom when observed in a cursory manner. But a closer inspection and more comprehensive view of the subject will convince us, that this portion of the works of nature is by no means destitute of the impress of the Deity. Indications of the same wisdom, power, and benevolence, which appear in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are also clearly discernible in the mineral."

"It may also be remarked," continues the author, "that several arts and manufactures depend on mineralogy for their existence; and that improvements and discoveries in the latter cannot fail of extending their beneficial effects to the aforementioned employments. In fine, the study of mineralogy, whether it be viewed as tending to increase individual wealth, to improve and multiply arts and manufactures, and thus promote the public good; or as affording a pleasant subject for scientific research, recommends itself to the attention of the citizen and scholar."

This introductory view of the importance and interest of the science cannot be charged with the fault of exaggeration, since it is most evident that neither civilization, refinement in arts, nor comfort, can exist where the properties of mineral substances are but imperfectly understood.

As regards this country, the argument admits of much amplification. The more our mineral treasures are explored, the more abundantly do they repay the research; and we trust that the period is not far distant, when we shall no longer ignorantly tread under our feet minerals of great curiosity and value, and import from other countries, at a great expense, what we, in many instances, possess abundantly at home.[9]

But to return to the plan of the author's work. Few persons, unacquainted with the science of mineralogy, would suspect that mere brute matter could exhibit many strong marks, capable of discrimination.

It may, however, be confidently affirmed, that there is no mineral which, if carefully studied, may not be distinguished by characters sufficiently decisive from every other mineral; an account of these characters ought, therefore, to precede every system of mineralogy. Professor Cleaveland has, with entire propriety, included them under the heads of crystallography, physical and external characters, and chemical characters.

He has given a clear view of the Abbé Haüy's curious discoveries regarding the six primitive figures or solids which form the bases of all crystals—the three integrant particles or molecules which constitute the primitive forms, and of the theory by which it is shown how the immensely numerous and diversified secondary or actual forms arise out of these few elementary figures.

This is certainly one of the most singular and acute discoveries of our age. It is true, there is a difference of opinion among mineralogists as to the practical use of crystallography in the discrimination of minerals. Some dwell upon it with excessive minuteness, and others seem restless and impatient of its details. The truth seems to be, that those who understand it, derive from it (wherever it is applicable) the most satisfactory aid; and it requires only a moderate knowledge of geometry to understand its principal outlines. On the other hand, it is no doubt possible, in most instances, to dispense with its aid, and to discriminate minerals by their other properties.

Of the external and physical characters of Mr. Werner, Mr. Cleaveland has given a clear account, combining into the same view the fine discriminations of the French authors, particularly regarding refraction, phosphorescence, specific gravity, electricity, chatoyement, and magnetism. The same may be said of the chemical characters. We do not know a more satisfactory and able view of the characters of minerals than Professor Cleaveland has exhibited.

We would however ask, whether, in enumerating the kinds of lustre, the term adamantine should not be explained, as it is not understood by people in general, while the terms denoting the other kinds are generally intelligible; whether in the enumeration of imitative forms, lenticular and acicular should not rather be referred to the laws of crystallization; whether reniform and mamillary are synonymous; whether sandstone, as being a mere aggregate of fragments, is a good instance of the granular fracture; whether in its natural state (at least the common ore of nickel) is ever magnetic, till purified, and whether cobalt is ever magnetic unless impure.

Professor Cleaveland's remarks on fracture are uncommonly discriminating and instructive, and would lead a learner to a just comprehension of this important point in the characters of minerals.

The section relating to the chemical characters is concise, and professedly proceeds upon the principle of selection. It might perhaps have been, to some extent, advantageously enlarged; although, it is true, the author refers us to the particular minerals for individual instances; still it might have been well to have illustrated the general principles by a few well-chosen instances, e. g. how, by the blowpipe, galena is distinguished from sulphuret of antimony; carbonat of lead from sulphat of barytes, or carbonat of lime; garnet from titanium; plaster of Paris from soapstone, &c.; and, among trials in the moist way, how by nitric acid and ammonia, iron pyrites is distinguished from copper pyrites; and how, by acids, sulphat of lime is known from carbonat of lime. As the acids are used principally for trials on the effervescence of carbonats, most of which form with sulphuric acid, insoluble compounds, we should doubt whether sulphuric acid is so advantageously employed as the nitric or muriatic, in such cases, on account of the clogging of the effervescence by the thick magena, produced by a recently precipitated and insoluble sulphat.

According to our experience, the nitric or muriatic acid, diluted with two or three parts of water, is most eligible.

With respect to the blowpipe: it is a convenience to have a mouth-piece of wood, or ivory, joined to a tube of metal, as Mr. Cleaveland recommends; and some authors direct to have the tube attached to a hollow ball, for the sake of condensing the moisture of the breath; but every thing which adds to the expense and complication of the instrument will tend to discourage its use; we have never found any difficulty in performing every important experiment with the common goldsmith's brass blowpipe; and are confident, that, after the learner has acquired the art, or knack, of propelling a continued stream of air from his mouth, by means of the muscles of the lips and cheeks, while his respiration proceeds without embarrassment through the nostrils, he will need no other instrument than the common blowpipe. Indeed it is a truly admirable instrument, instantly giving us the effect of very powerful furnaces, the heat being entirely under command, the subject of operation and all the changes in full view, and the expense and bulk of the instrument being such that every one may possess it, and carry it about his person.

The chapter on the principles of arrangement is worthy of all praise. This difficult subject is here discussed with such clearness, comprehensiveness, and candour, as prove the author to be completely master of his subject; and we are persuaded, that, on this topic, no author can be studied with more advantage. We forbear to extract, because the whole should be attentively perused in connexion, and scarcely admits of abridgement. We entirely agree with Professor Cleaveland, as we have already said, that the chemical composition of minerals is the only just foundation of their arrangement; that next in importance is the crystalline structure, including a knowledge of the primitive form, and integrant molecule; and last and least important, in fixing the arrangement, are the external characters: these last should be only provisionally employed, where the two first are not ascertained, or the second is not applicable. When the arrangement is once made, we may, however, and we commonly shall, in describing minerals, pursue precisely the reverse order; the external characters will usually be mentioned first, the crystalline characters next, and the chemical last of all. In description, the external characters are often the most valuable; if judiciously selected and arranged, they will always prove of the most essential service, and can rarely be entirely dispensed with.

With regard to the NOMENCLATURE of minerals, we feelingly unite with Professor Cleaveland in deploring the oppressive redundancy of synonymes. Few minerals have only one name, and usually they have several. With Count Bournon we agree, that the discoverer of a mineral has the exclusive right of naming it, and that the name once given should not be changed without the most cogent reasons. What then shall we say of the Abbé Haüy, of whom, whether we speak of his genius, his learning, his acuteness, his discoveries, his candour, and love of truth, or his universally amiable and venerable character, we can never think without sentiments of the highest respect and admiration? More than any modern writer he has added to the list of synonymes, often exchanging a very good name, derived perhaps from the locality or discoverer of a mineral, for one professedly significant, but connected with its subject by a chain of thought so slight, that considerable knowledge of Greek etymology, and still more explanation, is necessary to comprehend the connexion; and thus, after all, it amounts, with respect to most readers, only to the exchange of one arbitrary name for another. What advantage, for instance, has grammatite, alluding to a line often obscure, and still oftener wholly invisible, over the good old name tremolite, which always reminds us of an interesting locality; how is pyroxene better than augite, amphibole than hornblende, amphigene than leucite, or disthene than sappar. Some of the Abbé Haüy's names are, however, very happily chosen, especially where new discriminations were to be established, or errors corrected, or even a redundant crop of synonymes to be superseded by a better name. Epidote is an instance of the latter, and the new divisions of the old zeolite family into four species, mesotype, stilbite, analcime, and chabasie, afford a happy instance of the former. It were much to be wished, that by the common consent of mineralogists, one nomenclature should be universally adopted: for its uniformity is of much more importance than its nature.

In expressing our approbation of the principles of arrangement adopted by Professor Cleaveland, we have of course espoused those of his TABULAR VIEW, which is perhaps as nearly as the state of science will admit, erected upon a chemical basis, like that of Brongniart, to which it bears a close resemblance. Some of the subordinate parts, we could have wished had been arranged in a manner somewhat different. In the genus lime, it appears to us better to describe the species carbonat first; because, being very abundant, and its characters clear, it forms a convenient point of departure and standard of comparison, in describing the other species which have lime for their basis, and some of which are comparatively rare. The same remark we would make upon quartz, and its concomitant, pure silicious stones. There appears to us a high advantage in making these minerals clearly known first, before we proceed to those which are much more rare, and especially which are much harder, and possess the characters of gems. For example, if a learner has become acquainted with quartz, chalcedony, flint, opal, chrysoprase, and jasper, he will much more easily comprehend the superior hardness, &c. and different composition of topaz, sapphire, spinelleruby, chrysoberyl, and zircon, which we should much prefer to see occupying a later, than the first place in a tabular arrangement; and, although topaz, by containing fluoric acid, appears to be in some measure assimilated to saline minerals, it is in its characters so very diverse from the earthy salts, that we have fair reason to conclude that the fluoric acid does not stamp the character; and, as it bears so close a resemblance to the ruby and sapphire, which evidently derive their principal characters from the argillaceous earth, we perhaps ought to infer that this (the topaz,) does so too. Indeed Professor Cleaveland has sufficiently implied his own opinion, by giving these minerals a juxtaposition in his table, although the same reasons which induced the placing of the topaz next to the earthy salts, could not have justified the placing of the sapphire there. On these points we are not, however, strenuous; they are of more importance if the work be used as a text-book for lectures, than as a private companion. With respect to the completeness of Professor Cleaveland's tabular view, we have carefully compared it with the third edition of Jameson's mineralogy; and although a few new species, or sub-species, and varieties have been added in this last edition, they are in general of so little importance, that Professor Cleaveland's work cannot be considered as materially deficient; and the few cases in which it is so, are much more than made up by his entirely new and instructive views of American mineralogy, to which no parallel is to be found in any other book, and which give it peculiar interest to the American, and even to the European, reader.

In another edition, (which we cannot doubt will speedily be called for,) he will of course add whatever is omitted in this, and we should be gratified to see a good article on the subject of the ærolites or stones which have fallen from the atmosphere. This subject is one, in our view, of high interest; and although in strictness it may not claim a place in a tabular view of minerals, (we must confess, however, that we see no important obstacle to its being treated of under the head of native iron,) there can be no objection to its being placed in an appendix. The fall of stones from the atmosphere is the most curious and mysterious fact in natural history.

It may seem perhaps too trivial to remark, that the annexation of numbers, referring to the pages, would be a serious addition to the utility of the tabular view. Very few inadvertencies have been observed—the following may be mentioned: Amenia, in the State of New-York, is printed (by a typographical error we presume) Armenia; and Menechan, where the menechanite is found, is mentioned as occurring in Scotland, but it is in Cornwall.

Authors seem agreed that the black-lead ore is an altered carbonat, but they seem not to have been so well agreed as to the nature of the blue-lead ore. In the cabinet of Colonel Gibbs, there are specimens which appear satisfactorily to illustrate both these subjects. The black-lead is by the blowpipe alone reducible to metallic lead; there is one specimen in the cabinet referred to, which is blackened on what appears to have been the under side, and seemingly by the contact of sulphuretted hydrogen gas; that which was probably the upper part remains unaltered, and is beautiful white carbonat of lead; this appearance is the more striking, because the piece is large and full of interstices, by which the gas appears to have passed through. The blue ore is in large six-sided prisms of a dark blue or almost black colour; where the prisms are broken across, they present an unequal appearance; sometimes they are invested; and sometimes slightly, and at other times deeply, penetrated by sulphuret of lead, having the usual brilliant foliated fracture. The part which looks like sulphuret of lead is easily reducible by the blowpipe, but not the whole crystal, as authors appear to imply; for if that part of the crystal which does not present the appearance of galena is heated by the blowpipe flame, it is not reduced, but congeals into the garnet dodecahedron, with its colour unaltered: these crystals are therefore phosphat of lead, and they appear to be either an original mixture of phosphat and sulphuret of lead, or the phosphat has somehow in part given up its phosphoric acid, and assumed in its stead sulphur, perhaps from the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen.

Professor Cleaveland will, of course, add new localities, even foreign ones, where they are interesting, and domestic ones, where they are well authenticated. Among the former, we trust he will mention the lake of sulphuric acid contained in the crater of Mount Idienne, in the Province of Bagnia Vangni, in the eastern part of Java, and also the river of sulphuric acid which flows from it and kills animals, scorches vegetation, and corrodes the stones.[10] Among American localities, we beg leave to mention violet fluor spar, abundant and very handsome, near Shawnee Town, on the Ohio, in the Illinois Territory, and galena, of which this fluor is the gangue;—sulphat of magnesia, perfectly crystallized, in masses composed of delicate white prisms, in a cave in the Indiana Territory, not very remote from Louisville, in Kentucky; it is said to be so abundant that the inhabitants carry it away by the wagon load;—pulverulent carbonat of magnesia, apparently pure, found by Mr. Pierce at Hoboken, in serpentine, where the hydrate of magnesia was found;—chabasie, agates, chalcedony, amethyst, and analcime, at Deerfield, by Mr. E. Hitchcock;—agates in abundance at East-Haven, near New-Haven, in secondary greenstone, like the above-named minerals at Deerfield;—saline springs, covered with petroleum, and emitting large volumes of inflammable gases, numerous in New-Connecticut, south of Lake Erie;—magnetical pyrites, abundant in the bismuth vein, at Trumbull, Connecticut:—very brilliant fine-grained micaceous iron, in large masses near Bellows' Falls; yellow foliated blende, in Berlin, Connecticut, and near Hamilton College—the latter discovered by Professor Noyes; it is in veins in compact limestone;—red oxid of titanium, often geniculated, at Leyden, in Massachusetts, discovered by Mr. E. Hitchcock;—red oxid of titanium, in very large crystals and geniculated, imbedded in micaceous schistus, at Oxford, 20 miles north from New-Haven;—silicious petrifactions of wood, abundant in the island of Antigua, recently brought by Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-York;—sulphuret of molybdena, at Pettipaug, and at East-Haddam, Connecticut;—prehnite abundant and beautiful, in secondary greenstone, at Woodbury, 24 miles north of New-Haven, discovered by Mr. Elijah Baldwin;—black oxid of manganese, in great abundance, and of an excellent quality, near Bennington, Vermont, and plumose mica, in a very fine graphic granite, in a hill two miles north of Watertown, Connecticut.

The introduction to the Study of Geology, deserves a more extended series of remarks than it would now be proper to make, after so full a consideration of the previous parts of the work.

Professor Jameson's elaborate exposition of the Wernerian system, is too full, and too much devoted to a particular system, for beginners: the sketches of geology contained in the systems of Chemistry by Murray and Thomson, and in Phillips's mineralogy, are too limited, although useful: the excellent account of the Wernerian system, contained in an Appendix to Brochant's Mineralogy, has, we believe, never been translated; and we need not say that Professor Playfair's illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, De Luc's Geology, and Cuvier's Geology, are not well adapted to the purposes of a beginner; neither is Delametherie's, nor has it been translated. An introduction to geology was, therefore, hardly less needed than one to mineralogy. Professor Cleaveland has performed this difficult duty with great ability, and has brought this interesting branch of science fairly within the reach of our students.

Although adhering substantially to the Wernerian arrangement of rocks, he has, so to speak, blended Werner's three classes of primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, into one class; and where the same rock occurs in all the three classes, or in two of them, he mentions it in giving the history of the particular rock. This method simplifies the subject very much to the apprehensions of a learner. A rigid Wernerian would probably revolt at it, but the distinctions of Mr. Werner may still be pointed out, and, we should think, ought to be, at least by all teachers.

In Mr. Cleaveland's account of the trap rocks, we should almost imagine that some typographical error had crept into the following paragraph:

"But in modern geological inquiries, the word trap is usually employed to designate a simple mineral, composed of hornblende nearly or quite pure, and also those aggregates in which hornblende predominates. Hence, the presence of hornblende, as a predominating ingredient, characterizes those MINERALS to which most geologists apply the name trap."

Now, it is not accordant with our apprehensions that trap is ever at the present time employed to designate a simple mineral, nor has Professor Cleaveland himself used it in his tabular view, or in his description of simple minerals. In our view, it is the classical word of modern geology, to designate that description of rocks in which hornblende predominates, and perhaps a few others of minor importance usually associated with them. It is true, a rock composed of pure hornblende may be called trap, but it is not true, vice versa, that this rock, considered in its character of a simple mineral, is called trap. If our views are correct, the section which is headed trap or hornblende, should be trap or hornblende rocks, and greenstone should come in as a subdivision, and not form a distinct section. With these alterations, and with the substitution of rock in the first, and rocks in the second instance, in the paragraph above quoted, instead of mineral and minerals, we apprehend the view of this family of rocks would be much more clear, and a degree of confusion, which learners now experience from the paragraph, would be prevented. If we are wrong, we are sure Professor Cleaveland will pardon us; if right, his candour will readily admit the correction.

As to the manner in which the work of Professor Cleaveland is executed, the remarks which we already made, have in a good degree anticipated this head.

We cannot, however, dismiss the subject without adding that, in our opinion, this work does honour to our country, and will greatly promote the knowledge of mineralogy and geology, besides aiding in the great work of disseminating a taste for science generally. Our views of the plan we have already detailed. The manner of execution is masterly. Discrimination, perspicuity, judicious selection of characters and facts, and a style chaste, manly, and comprehensive, are among the characteristics of Professor Cleaveland's performance. It has brought within the reach of the American student the excellencies of Kirwan, Jameson, Haüy, Brochant, Brongniart, and Werner; and we are not ashamed to have this work compared with their productions. In our opinion Professor Cleaveland's work ought to be introduced into all our schools of mineralogy, and to be the travelling companion of every American mineralogist.

We trust that all cultivators of mineralogy and geology in this country, will willingly aid Professor Cleaveland in enlarging his list of American localities for a second edition; and we hope that he will repay them, at a future day, by giving us a distinct treatise on geology, with as particular a delineation as possible of the geological relations of the great North American formations. Mr. Maclure has, with great ability, sketched the outline; but much labour is still needed in filling up the detail.

Art. III. New Locality of Fluor Spar, or Fluat of Lime and of Galena, or Sulphuret of Lead.

Art. III.   New Locality of Fluor Spar, or Fluat of Lime and of Galena, or Sulphuret of Lead.

Mr. Joseph Baldwin, formerly of Connecticut, now residing near Shawnee Town, in the Illinois Territory, has given us some interesting specimens of fluor spar. They are found not far from Shawnee Town, on the banks of the Ohio; and a few miles below where the Wabash joins the Ohio. The fluor forms the gangue of a lead vein, and we have pieces in which the lead and fluor are intimately blended. The lead ore is the common galena, or sulphuret, with a broad, foliated, or laminated fracture, and a high degree of metallic splendour. We reduced it to the metallic state, and it yielded a large product of very soft lead. On dissolving it in nitric acid, and applying the muriatic acid till precipitation ceased, the precipitate formed was all redissolved by boiling water; nor, when submitted to cupellation did the lead leave any thing upon the cupel. We, therefore, conclude that it contained no appreciable quantity of silver. It is said to be very abundant at Shawnee Town.

The fluor spar is very beautiful. Its colours, chiefly, very deep purple and violet; but still highly translucent; one specimen was entirely limpid. Both kinds, when thrown in coarse powder, on a red-hot shovel, in a dark place, phosphoresced, and the violet specimens in a very striking manner. Of the violet kind, we have a specimen nearly as large as a man's fist, which is perfectly pure and sound, and appears to have been a single crystal; the natural faces and angles were unfortunately obliterated by grinding on a common grindstone. We have others which are decidedly crystals of perfect regularity; cubes, and passages between the cube and octahedron. In some of the specimens, the disposition of colours, and the transmission of light is such as to show very clearly that the octahedron lies in the centre, as the nucleus or primitive form.

The size and beauty of the specimens, and the abundance of this mineral near Shawnee Town, (provided there is no mistake in the case) clearly entitle this to be considered as the most interesting American locality of this beautiful mineral. Measures have been taken to investigate the subject more fully, and to obtain a supply of specimens.

Quartz crystals appear to abound at the same place, besides various other minerals.

Art. IV. Carbonate of Magnesia, and very uncommon Amianthus.

Art. IV.   Carbonate of Magnesia, and very uncommon Amianthus, discovered near New-York.—Extract of a Letter from Mr. James Pierce to the Editor.

New-York, May 18, 1818.

DEAR SIR,
I forward you specimens of straw and rose-coloured amianthus I recently met with on Staten-Island, which I detached, in strips, from a rock; it not appearing, as is usual, in veins. It breaks up like flax, and may be spun and wove without the aid of moisture; and in respect to tenacity, flexibility, and length of fibre, it may be considered the best found in this country, and perhaps equal to any hitherto discovered. Staten-Island exhibits many minerals worthy of examination. I subjoin, as requested, the following geological description, &c.

Hoboken, where I discovered native carbonate of magnesia, is situated opposite the city of New-York, on the western or New-Jersey bank of the Hudson. It is a primitive, insulated elevation, with a nucleus of serpentine; the ground gradually descends in every direction except on the river side, where mural precipices of serpentine rock are observed, extending about 100 rods parallel with the water, and elevated from 60 to 100 feet above its level. The carbonate of magnesia I found in horizontal veins of nearly two inches in breadth, and of unknown depth, in a midway region of this serpentine ledge; I extracted a considerable quantity with a spoon. When first taken out it was soft, white, and very slightly adhesive, from a little moisture; but, when dry, fell to powder without friction. The nature of the mineral I immediately conjectured, and treated it with diluted sulphuric acid, in which it entirely dissolved with effervescence, forming a bitter fluid, and leaving no sediment. Upon evaporation, well-defined crystals of Epsom salts were formed. It differs little from the manufactured carbonate of magnesia of the shops; but is rather a super than a sub-carbonate. It has been analyzed by Professor Mitchill, who found it exclusively composed of magnesia and carbonic acid. Carbonates of magnesia, hitherto discovered, have been, I believe, found impure, and in a state of rock, requiring chemical process to render them serviceable; this is, perhaps, fit for immediate use. When I first mentioned the discovery to mineralogists, they were incredulous, supposing it did not natively exist in this state, but I convinced them by uniting it with sulphuric acid.

REMARKS.

The specimen of amianthus, referred to in Mr. Pierce's communication, is uncommon. The fibres measure from 12 to 15 inches in length, and are as soft and flexible as fine human hair.

It will be remembered, that in the rocks at Hoboken, Dr. Bruce discovered the hydrate of magnesia, or magnesia combined with nothing but water, in the proportion of about 70 per cent. of magnesia. This discovery gave a new and interesting species to mineralogy; it is now admitted in the systematical works on mineralogy.

Mr. Pierce's discovery is not less interesting; and we presume he will be deemed correct in the opinion, that pure native carbonate of magnesia has not been discovered before. The serpentine of Hoboken, then, is memorable for affording these two new species.

Art. V. Native Copper.

Art. V.   Native Copper.

In Bruce's Journal, (Vol. I. p. 149.) mention is made of a remarkable piece of native copper, found near New-Haven many years ago, and weighing about 90lbs.

We have now to add, (and the fact is, indeed, mentioned in Cleaveland's Mineralogy,) that another piece has been recently found half a mile west of the Hartford turnpike road, opposite the town of Wallingford, and twelve miles from New-Haven. It was turned up in ploughing to repair a road. The country is of the secondary trap formation, and the rocks, at the particular place, are the old red sandstone of Werner, which here occupies the plains, and runs under the trap. The piece weighs almost six pounds; it is fine virgin copper, with rudiments of large octahedral crystals of native copper upon its surface, which is more or less incrusted with green carbonate of copper and ruby oxid, very much resembling that of Cornwall: the ruby oxid is particularly remarkable in the cavities of the piece.

As it was found within three or four miles of the place where the large piece of ninety pounds weight was discovered, and as copper is known to exist in many places in these hills, the facts should be kept in view, and may lead to something of importance.

Art. VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua.

Art. VI.   Petrified Wood from Antigua.

The mineralogy and geology of the West-India islands has been, as yet, but little explored. The scientific world has, however, been favoured with some interesting articles from the pen of Dr. Nugent; and we are informed that he has described also the geology of the island of Antigua. We have recently become acquainted with one interesting production of this island, and without waiting for Dr. Nugent's account, (which we believe has not yet reached this country) we shall lay it before our readers.

We are under obligations to Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-York, for a collection of specimens of silicious petrifactions of wood from Antigua. Their characters are indubitable; the distinct ligneous layers corresponding with the annual growth, the medullary prolongations, the knots formed by branches, the cracks and the bark, are all distinctly visible. Some of the pieces are ponderous portions of large trees.

As to the mineralizing matter, it is evidently silicious, and the specimens are principally the holzstein of Werner; crystals of quartz are apparent in the cavities; some parts are agatized, and veins of chalcedony occasionally pervade the fissures: they are not impressible by steel, and give fire with it. According to the information of Mr. Perit, they are scattered over the surface of the Island of Antigua, with a profusion hardly less than that which Horneman observed of the same mineral during his travels over the eastern part of the great African desert.

It is much to be wished that our numerous intelligent navigators and travelling merchants would, in imitation of this and of a similar example, mentioned below, bestow some share of their attention on the natural productions of the countries which they visit. In this way they might, on their return, render very essential services to the science of their own country.

Art. VII. Porcelain and Porcelain Clays.

Art. VII.   Porcelain and Porcelain Clays.

Through the kind offices of a friend, we have been furnished, from one of the great porcelain manufactories in the vicinity of Paris, with a series of specimens, to illustrate the elegant art of fabricating porcelain. The specimens begin with the raw materials, and exhibit them in all their principal stages of advancement up to the perfect vessel, including the materials for the glazing, and the colours for the painting, and the application of both. At the request of the manufacturer, through whose liberality we were indulged with this gratification, we transmitted to Paris various specimens of American porcelain clays. This gentleman has caused them to be subjected to trials in the porcelain furnaces, and he finds that some of them are equal to the French porcelain clays, and some superior. As our specimens were all labelled with the names of the places, in this country, from which they were obtained, we hope soon to learn where to look for porcelain clays, equal or superior to those celebrated ones from which the superb French porcelain is manufactured.

As this subject is one of much practical importance to the rising arts of this country, and as much interest has been excited in Paris concerning our porcelain clays, we should feel greatly obliged by the transmission to us of any specimens of American porcelain clays, with memoranda of the place, the quantity, the depth at which obtained, the difficulty of obtaining, and, generally, all the peculiar circumstances. We will take care that their value shall be ascertained, if they appear promising, and a proper return shall be made to the proprietor.

To those of our readers who may not be familiar with this subject, we would however take the liberty to remark, that porcelain clays generally arise from the decomposition of granite, and particularly of that kind which is denominated graphic granite, and which abounds with feldspar. It is, therefore, in the primitive countries that we are chiefly to expect them—such as New-England, and part of the high country of the middle and southern states.

It should be observed, that if a clay, otherwise apparently good, burns red, it contains iron, and is unfit for porcelain; although it may serve well enough for more common and coarse earthen ware.

Art. VIII. Native Sulphur from Java.

Art. VIII.   Native Sulphur from Java.

Through the kindness of Mr. I. Huntington, recently returned from Java, we have received from that Island some fine specimens of native sulphur. They are very pure, of an orange yellow, slightly shaded with white, and occasionally with red; some of the cavities are lined with delicate crystals. What gives them particular interest is, that they are believed to be from that "large, and now nearly extinct, volcano, about sixty miles from the town of Batavia, at the bottom of which (of the crater) lie large quantities of native sulphur, even many hundred tons." It is in the crater of this volcano that the famous lake of sulphuric acid exists, and from which it flows down the mountain, and through the country below, a river of the same acid. (See Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XLII. p. 182.) It is a most curious phenomenon, and we believe entirely without a parallel. Another river, called the White River, unites with this some miles below its origin: this river, which is so called from the turbidness of its waters, its salutary to men and animals; fishes live in it, and vegetation is nourished by its waters; but after the junction it becomes clear; the acid dissolving the earthy particles which discoloured it, and it now becomes fatal to living beings: kills the fish, destroys the vegetation, and corrodes the stones in its channel. This remarkable river flows from Mount Idienne, in the province of Bagnia Vangni, in the eastern part of Java.

Art. IX. Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia.

Art. IX.   Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia.

We are indebted to the Reverend Elias Cornelius, and to Mr. John H. Kain, for a collection of the calcareous incrustations of Wier's Cave, in Virginia.

The stalactites, and stalagmites, and various incrustations, are of uncommon size and beauty. Some of the stalactites have a delicate whiteness, and a brilliancy arising from their crystallized structure, which, with the regularity of their forms, give them a fair title to rank with those of the famous caverns in the Peak of Derbyshire, in the island of Antiparos, &c.

In these stalactites, the structure is most remarkably distinct, both in the fibrous and concentric lamellar form. In this collection were observed many forms of the crystallized hard carbonates of lime, of Count Bournon.

For a description of the cavern from which these specimens came, we refer to the succeeding memoir, by Mr. Kain.

Art. X. Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of the the Northwestern part of the State of Virginia, and the Eastern part of the State of Tennessee.

Art. X.   Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of the Northwestern part of the State of Virginia, and the Eastern part of the State of Tennessee. By Mr. John H. Kain, of Tennessee.

The most prominent as well as the most beautiful feature of this country, is that succession of mountain and valley, ridge and vale, which we meet with in traversing its surface. The grand range of Alleghany mountains enters Virginia about the 39th degree of north latitude; and, pursuing a southwestern course, spreads out upon the east end of Tennessee, and terminates near the southern boundary line of that state, in the Alabama territory; and about the 34th parallel of north latitude. In this view are included the Blue Mountains, the North Mountains, the Allegheny, (properly so called) the Cumberland, Clinch, Iron, and Smoky mountains, together with a variety of smaller mountains, spurs, and ridges, all running parallel to each other, from the northeast to the southwest; and all, I believe I may say, covered with forests, and presenting to the eye of the naturalist a most interesting field for speculation and improvement.

With a few exceptions, the geologist meets with none of those remarkable appearances which indicate the changes and convulsions which have been wrought by time, the great enemy of nature. Occasionally we are presented with a view of a sublime precipice, formed by a section which a river appears to have made for itself through an opposing mountain; and the large masses of ruins, which lie scattered around such a place, seem, to the imagination of the solitary traveller, the historical records of commotions, awful even in retrospect. Most commonly, however, the mountains seem to have lain for ages in undisturbed repose; and the streams of water, when they have crossed them, have sought an easy passage through the ravines, which do not so often divide a mountain, or ridge, at right angles, as wind between the ends of two opposing spurs, which pass each other, gradually declining into the champaign country at their mutual base. Through this whole extent of country we rarely meet with any remarkable falls of water; the obvious reason of which is, that the rocks are so soft that they are easily worn down to the level of the beds of rivers. But shoals, or shallows, are frequent, and are formed by beds of rounded sandstone, spread out into a broad base, over which the water often rushes with no small violence and noise.

The mountains are generally, though not always, sterile, and produce nothing but forest trees; but the valleys are, with hardly an exception, rich, and productive of every variety of "grass and herb yielding seed, and fruit-tree yielding fruit." Nor are they less favoured in the mineral kingdom; possessing the greatest abundance of all the most useful and necessary minerals, of which we shall now proceed to speak in order.

All the country included under the boundaries mentioned above, with the exception of some primitive ranges of mountains on the southeastern side, is apparently transition. This, it will be seen by a reference to Mr. Maclure's excellent map, will extend the boundary of his transition class considerably farther northwest, and make it include Cumberland Mountain and all East Tennessee. This would be evident from comparing the northwestern part of Virginia, which Mr. Maclure has included in his transition tract with all East Tennessee. Every mineralogist must observe the identity of the minerals of the two countries as well as that of their stratification and general formation. The limestone in the valleys, and the sandstone on the mountains, lie in strata which make an angle of from 25 to 45 degrees with the horizon. The limestone bears the impressions of shells, but rarely, if ever, of vegetables, and contains beds of hornstone, but not of flint, or what can properly be called flint.

The rock which lies in the lowest valleys, and often rises into pretty high hills, and is seen forming bluffs on the banks of the rivers, is limestone: it is of a dark blue, approaching to a gray, as it is exposed to the air, and often appearing quite white. Its fracture is compact in one direction; in another it is more or less slaty in its structure. It is interspersed with veins of the crystallized carbonate of lime, more or less perfect, and of a pure but opaque white. Another variety of this limestone, not so abundant, is that which is white and red, having the white and red spots intimately mingled. Its structure is similar to the other kind.

Lying in beds of this limestone, parallel to, and imbedded in, its strata, is a stone, which, from its globular form, its hardness, and its colour, has been usually mistaken for flint. On comparing it with the flint of chalk-beds, we find it much less translucent, its colour darker, and its hues duller; and its rough and irregular fracture, compared with the easy, smooth, and conchoidal cleavage of the true flint, decides it to be hornstone. It is found also forming considerable distinct beds on the hills; and is seen in detached pieces, and irregular pebbles, covering many of the ridges.

Alternating with the beds of limestone, and possessing the same formation, is a soft clay slate. Soapstone is found in it.

As soon as we ascend the mountains, we meet with a slaty sand-stone of various compactness, as it possesses more or less iron, often forming an excellent iron ore. A variety of this iron ore has been lately turned to a good use, in the manufacture of a red paint, near Knoxville, Tennessee. Different varieties of this sandstone possess different qualities. It is converted by the inhabitants into millstones, grindstones, and whetstones. Interspersed among the sandstone of the mountains we often find very beautiful and interesting specimens of hornstones, assuming a resemblance to all the silicious stones, from the chalcedony to the jasper. In this extensive range of mountains, many other minerals exist, of which we shall treat more particularly hereafter. The limestone, slate, and sandstone, as far as the writer's knowledge extends, so to speak, form the country; the limestone and clay slate dipping under the sandstone. Gypsum, coal, sulphate of barytes, &c. are found in these, and we shall now speak of their localities.

Gypsum.—This valuable mineral production exists in Washington County, Virginia, 20 miles north of Abingdon, in the vicinity of Saltville. It is similar, in every respect, to the plaster of Nova Scotia, and devoted by the farmers of that part of Virginia, and Tennessee, to similar purposes.

Coal is said to exist in immense quantities in the Cumberland Mountain. A bed of it is wrought near Knoxville, Tennessee. It is of an excellent quality; but wood is so abundant that it is used only in forges.

Sulphate of Barytes.—This mineral is found in Bottetourt County, Virginia, near Fincastle; and in Sevier County, Tennessee.

Hard Carbonates of Lime.—Stalactitical concretions abound in all the caves so often described as existing in this country. Those of Virginia are more perfectly crystallized than those of Tennessee. Under the head of hard carbonates should be mentioned an extensive bed or vein in Montgomery County in the State of Virginia, near the seat of Colonel Hancock. It appears to have been formed in a chasm, in the common limestone of the country, by a calcareous deposition which resembles, exactly, in all its characters, the calcareous concretions which are found forming in the caves of the country. The whole bed may, in fact, be regarded as a cave which has been filled up in the progress of time, by this curious process. Its width is various, from two feet to ten, or more, extending along the side of a very steep ridge, for at least 50 yards, and it is said to be continued seven miles farther.

The silicious carbonate of lime may be worth distinguishing from the common limestone. It is found in a bed near Colonel Hancock's, and was supposed to be gypsum. It phosphoresces beautifully; it is white, and confusedly crystalline in its structure, and much harder than the common limestone. Indeed the limestone generally, on the east of the Alleghany, is somewhat harder than that on the west.

Lead.—There are several localities of this mineral. A mine of it is wrought near New River, 15 miles from Wythe, Virginia. Another locality of the ore of lead is said to have been discovered in Granger County, Tennessee, on land belonging to General Cocke. It exists also, very near the surface, on the plantation of the Rev. Mr. Craighead, near Nashville; which, however, is out of our boundary.

Other metallic ores are said to have been found among these mountains, and particularly those of gold and silver; but the accounts are vague and uncertain, and not to be credited.

The numerous Caves of this country present attractions to every, the least curious, traveller; and, in an eminent degree, to the mineralogist. They are crevices, or large chasms, probably worn in the rocks by the passage of water. This will, at first view, perhaps appear a bold assertion; but if it be recollected that they occur only in limestone, which is a soft rock, and (under certain circumstances,) soluble in water; that the rocks bear every mark of having been worn by water; and that streams of water are always found in them, it will not appear an improbable hypothesis. It is by no means difficult to believe that a stream, after having worn such a chasm as a cave presents, in the solid rock, may have found another channel; and, forsaking the old, have left room for nature to display some of her most beautiful works. A description of one of these caves will be a description of all; and we shall select Wier's Cave, in Rockingham County, Virginia, as it is the most curious of any with which we are acquainted.

The entrance of the cave is narrow and difficult. When the cave was first discovered, the passage into it was impeded by stalactites, which had formed perpendicular columns across it; but these are now removed. As we advance, our course is at first horizontal, but we soon descend fifteen or twenty feet by a ladder, and find ourselves in a large echoing cavern. Stalactites of a silvery whiteness are suspended from above, and pillars of stalagmites are rising around us. Ledges of rocks form our floor, and the uneven walls are incrusted over with a beautiful brown spar, which is sometimes suspended from the canopy in thin, shining, and translucent sheets. In passing on over the rugged rock of our pathway, our attention is divided between a care for our safety, and an admiration of the surrounding wonders.

Proceeding on through a narrower crevice in the rocks, we are soon introduced into other apartments, differing in shape and size from the first, but resembling it in the irregularity of its walls, floor, and covering, and in the calcareous incrustations and concretions, which, assuming a thousand fantastic shapes, and displaying a sparkling lustre, the more vivid as the light is stronger, give to this whole grotto the power of charming every beholder.

The cave is a mile and a half in extent, and extremely irregular in its course and shape. Its perpendicular height varies from three to forty feet, and its breadth from two to thirty. Its dividing branches are numerous, forming a great variety of apartments. The blue limestone appears frequently enough to satisfy us that it is the groundwork of the whole; but it is almost every where covered with incrustations of the hard carbonates. These hang from the arched vault above in clusters, and often reach the ground, forming massive columns. Stalagmites again rise from the floor like so many statues; the irregular sides of the ledges of rocks are often incrusted over with white crystals of the carbonate of lime, and have the appearance of banks of salt: at times we seem to walk on diamond pavements; again our footway is of rounded pebbles, and seems the bed of a river which had deserted its channel. Often we pass small streams of water; and the water is continually dripping from the ends of the stalactites, the echoing sound of which, when it drops, forms the only interruption to the profound silence which reigns throughout the cavern.

To give an idea of the diversified shapes which these concretions assume in the progress of their formation, (and they are constantly forming,) would be impossible. Suffice it to say, that there is scarcely any thing on earth to which they may not be supposed to form a resemblance; and yet, in fact, they are unlike any thing but themselves.

It is generally known that the earth in these caves contains the nitrates of lime, and potash, and other salts. The numerous caves which have been found in the Cumberland mountains and other parts of Tennessee, have been very productive of the nitrate of potash. In the investigation of the causes which have given origin to these salts, it may be recollected, that wild animals burrow in these caves; that when pursued by the hunter, they make them the places of their retreat, and probably die there; that the aborigines have made them a place of burial; and that the streams of water which flow through them in wet weather, carry with them not only great quantities of leaves but many other vegetable productions.

The natural bridge is celebrated as one of the greatest curiosities of the world. Viewed by a geologist, it would probably be considered as a cave (so to speak) unroofed in all but one place. It seems improbable that if the ravine had been made by a convulsion, which had split and separated the rock to the distance of fifty or sixty feet, any part of it, and particularly so large a mass as that which forms the bridge, should have been left, without exhibiting any marks of violence. The rock is limestone. It is known that this rock wears away rapidly under the attrition of water; and the supposition does not appear improbable, that, in the lapse of ages, so large a creek as that which flows below the bridge, may have worn as deep a ravine as that which now strikes us with so much surprise, In short, may not a cave have been originally formed where the ravine is now, and the pending portion of it have fallen in at every place except that which now forms this celebrated natural curiosity?

Mineral Springs.—The mineral springs of this region are numerous and diversified. Chalybeate springs are promiscuously scattered over the whole of it; and springs impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen are quite common. Salt springs and licks are found more in the western than the eastern range of mountains. That which was first wrought by William King, is well known. The salt here is associated with gypsum. In the same range of mountains, farther to the southwest, there are now several other salt-works, and also one to the west, on Goose Creek, in Kentucky, which has been very productive.

The Warm Springs.—These springs are situated in a country which presents many attractions to the travelling geologist; and much light, it is hoped, will yet be thrown on the geology of our country, by a more minute and accurate examination of it than has yet been made.

The warm springs ooze through the sand on the south bank of the French Broad river, in the mountains which divide the state of Tennessee from her parent state, about the 36th parallel of latitude. The temperature of the water is about 95° of Fahrenheit.

On the opposite side of the river from the springs is a geological curiosity. A limestone rock is seen dipping under the sandstone which forms the country. Limestone is nowhere else to be seen within six miles of this place. In this limestone rock is a cave similar to others already described.

Paint Rock, in the vicinity of the Warm Springs, is interesting on many accounts. It is a bold precipice on the bank of French Broad river. At this place the river passes with a very rapid current directly across the course of a mountain, which terminates abruptly, and forms the precipice on the north bank of the river. On looking at the rock, the opposite end of the mountain, and the ruins around it, the mind is insensibly carried back to the contemplation of some dreadful commotion in nature, which probably shook these mountains to their bases.

The rock is composed of a clay slate; and it is here again remarkable, that this stone is not to be seen in any other place within some miles. It has received its name from some red paintings, (probably left on it by the Indians,) which have the appearance of hieroglyphics.

To conclude. It will be seen from the above observations, that this country presents a vast field of most interesting research, and claims the attention of every traveller who is interested at all in geological inquiries. If what has been said will at all contribute to the enlargement of the general stock of our knowledge on these subjects, the writer will be much gratified; and it is his sincere wish, that the accuracy of his remarks may be tried, and his mistakes corrected, by the researches of succeeding travellers.

Art. XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill's Edition of Cuvier's Essay on the Theory of the Earth.

Art. XI.   Notice of Professor Mitchill's Edition of Cuvier's Essay on the Theory of the Earth.

The American scientific public are under obligations to Professor Mitchill for bringing this book within their reach. It is one of the most eloquent, impressive, and instructive works on this grand but obscure subject, with which the world has ever been favoured. The reader is no sooner drawn within the current of Cuvier's eloquence, than he is borne along almost without the power or wish to escape. It is believed there are few intelligent and enlightened persons, whether geologists or not, who would fail to be gratified by a book which secures the understanding by a strict course of reasoning from facts, and delights the taste by a style bold, terse, and lucid, but at the same time rich and flowing.

The analysis of this work has been ably performed in Europe, and there is, therefore, the less necessity to attempt it here. While we take the liberty thus to recommend it, we do not hold ourselves strictly bound to the admission of every one of Cuvier's doctrines; and might, perhaps, wish that in a few instances he had been somewhat more explicit, or somewhat more qualified.

The additions by Professor Jameson, of Edinburgh, are valuable and interesting, and are retained in the present edition.

Those by Professor Mitchill will be perused with pleasure and advantage. The learned author has assembled, in one view, a great mass of facts, partly resulting from his own journeys and observations, and partly deduced from other respectable sources. We have no doubt that most of these facts will be considered by the scientific world as very interesting, whatever views they may entertain of the conclusions built upon them. The author has occupied himself principally upon those portions of the United States, which, by the organized remains both of animals and vegetables, with which they more or less abound, exhibit the most decisive and interesting evidence of changes and catastrophes, whose history is to be sought in the memorials entombed in the strata themselves.

We give no opinion regarding the theories of Professor Mitchill, not intending to review the work, but merely to aid, as far as in our power, in drawing the public attention to the interesting subjects about which it is occupied.

If we have any remark to add, it is, that an adherence to the technical precision with which most rocks are at the present day described, appears desirable in mineralogical and geological descriptions. When in the valuable additions before us we read of schorl rock, we gain only the idea of a rock containing that mineral; but as it occurs occasionally in several of the primitive rocks, we are at a loss which is intended; we believe it never forms a rock by itself. So with the slate rocks: there are several varieties of them—mica slate, clay slate, greenstone slate, &c. besides some subdivisions; and the mere word slate does not always give us the precise idea. But we are aware that, in the present case, it was less in view to go into all the details of geological description, than to give a view of our organized remains and of their supposed origin.

Art. XII. Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the Northern States.

Art. XII.   Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the Northern States, together with a Transverse Section of the Catskill Mountain to the Atlantic.

The extensive collection of facts in this little book of fifty-four pages, is creditable to the author's industry and discernment: he informs us that he has travelled 1000 miles on foot, while investigating the geology of the district concerning which he has written. This district is certainly interesting, and every attempt to diffuse correct information concerning it, deserves encouragement. Mr. Eaton's account of the regions he has explored, has every mark of verisimilitude; and we commend his efforts to diffuse geological information, by short courses of lectures, in different towns. In his arrangement of rocks, he has deviated from Werner—has adopted some views of Bakewell, and some of his own. Werner's arrangement of rocks has, undoubtedly, its imperfections and its redundancies; and yet it may be questioned how far his system has been really improved by its different emendators. If Werner, by mentioning argillaceous schistus only in the primitive class of rocks, left us to dispose of it where we might, when we find it at one time, covering or sustaining anthracite, with impressions of ferns, and at another with impressions of fish and vegetables, and in contact with bituminous coal; still those who, with Mr. Eaton, throw argillaceous slate into the transition class, and omit it in the primitive and secondary, embarrass us with an equal difficulty; for we find argillaceous slate in contact, and alternating with, mica slate, and without any impressions of organized bodies, when we must, without a doubt, call it primitive.

This is the fact with the clay slate of the Woodbridge hills, near New-Haven, which is primitive; that of Rhode-Island, with anthracite, is transition; and that at Middlefields, west of Middletown, with impressions of fish, is secondary. Slate then appears to belong to all these three great classes of rocks.

As to the metalliferous limestone, we do not so much object to the introduction of this term by Bakewell, although it appears to us quite as well to say that certain limestones, those of the transition class for example, are metalliferous. But is Eaton correct in referring such limestone as that of which the New-York City-Hall is built, to a metalliferous class? Is not that limestone decidedly primitive? The fact mentioned of its containing pyrites, hardly proves it to be metalliferous; since most rocks contain more or less of pyrites. Some other remarks of less importance we might add, but we prefer concluding by recommending this tract to the perusal of those who wish for information respecting the geological structure of New-England; and we think that Mr. Eaton is seriously aiding the progress of geology in the interior of New-England.

Art. XIII. Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains.

Art. XIII.   Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains.

This distinguished mineralogist, so advantageously known by his excellent work on mineralogy—his researches in company with Cuvier, into the subterranean geography of the environs of Paris, and his superintendence of the great porcelain manufactory at Sevres, is attempting to form an extensive collection of organized remains.

Through Professor Cleaveland, we have received from him the following

NOTICE

Concerning the method of collecting, labelling, and transmitting specimens of fossil organized bodies, and of the accompanying rocks, solicited by M. Brongniart.

The study of fossil organized bodies appears to be of the utmost importance in determining the relations of different formations, one of the principal objects of geology.

In order more effectually to appreciate the value of this method of investigation, it is necessary to multiply observations—to endeavour to render them exact and precise—and especially to make them upon a general plan.

M. Brongniart has been long occupied in such researches. The essay published by M. Cuvier and him, upon the geology of the environs of Paris, has afforded an example of their use.

He has laboured since this period to apply this method to other formations, which contain the relics of organized bodies; but he stands in need of much assistance, and he presumes to ask it, not only of naturalists, but even of all persons interested in the sciences. By means of the following instructions, he endeavours to avail himself of the kindness of persons the least conversant in the discrimination of fossils.

1. To collect all the fossil organized bodies which can be obtained; especially the distinguishable impressions and remains of vegetables from coal countries, and beds of wood, coal, and others. The shells, crustaceæ, madrepores, fishes, &c. It is not necessary that these bodies should be either large or entire, but they must be sufficiently characterized to be capable of being recognized.

It is useless to transmit large unmeaning pieces, which are recommended only by their size—such as large ammonites—large madrepores—large pieces of petrified wood—fragments of the one, or small individuals of the other, are often sufficient. We may avoid also collecting the inner moulds ("des moules interieurs") of shells, because they are almost invariably incapable of being recognized.

2. Petrifactions, isolated and detached from their rock, are the most convenient in the determination of species; but when they cannot be separated from the rock, we need not hesitate to send them engaged; it is sufficient if a portion large enough for discrimination is visible.

Among shells, those are preferable which have the mouth or hinge in view; among madrepores, those on whose surface the figures (les étoiles) are distinguishable; among vegetables, those whose leaves are distinctly expanded, (expalmées.)

3. Upon the objects transmitted it is desirable to have, at least in part, the following notices:

1. The exact place from which the object comes: this is the most important circumstance, and the easiest to obtain.

2. The kind of formation in which it is found, and a specimen of the stratum, or at least of the rock, which contained it. It is desirable that this rock exhibit remains of petrifactions similar to those found in the stratum from which it has been drawn.

3. The nature of the formation of which this stratum or rock composes a part, and specimens of as many of the superior and inferior strata as can be obtained, designating the order of superposition of the strata.

4. It is important to designate, by the same mark, all the petrifactions unquestionably found in the same stratum, or at least in the same formation. The specimens ought to be almost square—about three inches or more on a side, and one and a half thick.

5. It is equally important not to mix petrifactions found in different formations, or in different strata of the same formation; or if they are packed together, to distinguish them by numbers, marks, or labels.

When the preceding notices cannot be obtained, the first will suffice.

In order to collect the petrifactions, and to render them useful, it is not necessary to know them, nor to be perplexed to find them out; nor to be afraid of sending objects already known or of little note. A part of the preceding indications, connected with the most common petrifactions, will always render them useful. The important point then is, not to mix those which are found separate, nor to separate those which are found associated in the same stratum.

This is easily attained, by designating by a common number, letter, or any sign whatever, one particular formation or stratum, and by marking with the same sign all the petrifactions which are evidently found together.

The labels designating the place or the geological situation, may be placed in the papers which envelope the specimens, or a number, referring to an explanatory catalogue, may be attached to each specimen.

As far as possible, it is necessary to stick the labels or numbers to the pieces, by pasting; and the surest way is, to write upon the piece itself, 1st, the place where it is found; 2d, the number by which it is indicated in the historical notes above requested.

If there is not time to make out as many numbers or labels as there are pieces, it will be sufficient to unite in one box or packet all the petrifactions of one particular stratum, and to designate them by a general label.

It is necessary to pack the shells and other fragile pieces in separate boxes, and to wrap each piece in a separate paper.

M. Brongniart cannot allow himself to prefer such requests, except under the express condition, that a memorandum of all the expenses which the transportation and packing of the specimens may create shall accompany the letter of advice.

The objects destined for him may be sent by the common modes of conveyance, with a letter of advice, to the following address:

Mr. A. Brongniart, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Engineer of Mines, etc. Rue Saint-Dominique, Faubourg Saint-Germain, No. 71, Paris.

Art. XIV. Observations on a species of Limosella, recently discovered in the United States.

Art. XIV.   Observations on a species of Limosella, recently discovered in the United States, by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of Materia Medica and Botany, in the Medical Institution of Yale College.

This small plant was observed in flower in July, 1816, by Mr. Horatio N. Fenn (now of Rochester, State of New-York) in company with Dr. Leavenworth. The plant and the seeds have been preserved by me, in a flower-pot, from that time to the present. The plant was taken a few rods south of Mr. Whitney's gun manufactory, on the margin of the river, where it was covered by every tide. I have since observed the plant in great abundance on the margin of the Housatonuck, in Derby, and in those small streams in East Haven, Branford, and Guilford, which empty into Long-Island Sound.

A specimen of the limosella (with some specimens of the tillea) was sent to Z. Collins, Esq. of Philadelphia, who wrote me that Mr. Nuttall had found the same plant, a few days previous to the receipt of my letter, and that they had no question on the subject of the generic character, but that it would probably prove to be a new species.

In the transactions of the Medico-Physical Society of New-York, page 440, it is described under the name of limosella subulata. A description of the plant was published about the same time, by Mr. Nuttall, in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. (See Vol. I. No. 6. p. 115.)

In the paper written by Mr. Nuttall is the following query: "Does this plant, with a lateral mode of growth and alternate leaves, germinate with two cotyledons?" The following observations were made in answer to this question. In the winter of 1816-17 this plant was kept in a situation exposed to severe frost; yet whenever the weather became warm for two or three days, it became quite green, but for the last winter there was no appearance of life in the plant. In March 1818, the vessel in which the limosella had been preserved for two summers preceding, and in which were a great quantity of seeds, was exposed in a warm situation to the sun. There was no appearance of vegetation until the last of March, when were observed several cylindrical leaves, some of them evidently arose from bulbs which had formed the last summer, on account of the dryness of its situation, which frequently occurs when plants are removed from a moist to a dry situation. In other instances single cylindrical leaves arose from the earth, where no bulbs were to be found; these cylindrical leaves were thought to arise from seeds, which, if it was a fact, would prove that the plant vegetated with but one cotyledon. In a short time the vessel was crowded with the seeds of the limosella raised by the cotyledons. These were carefully observed, and in every instance, when the coat of the seed was cast off, two linear cotyledons were observed, soon a cylindrical leaf arose from the centre of the cotyledons, and when this leaf had grown to the length of half an inch, a leaf of a similar kind arose laterally to a line made by the first leaf and the cotyledons.

From the facts above stated, it is thought to be proved that the limosella vegetates with two cotyledons. This was the fact in every instance where the husk of the seeds was obviously attached to the cotyledons, and in the few instances where the plants appeared to vegetate with but one cotyledon, it is probable that it arose from a bulb or some portion of the old plant, in which life had not been extinguished, during the past winter, which was made more probable by the fact that several of the leaves arose obviously from bulbs. This limosella,[11] with its congeners, hence will take its place in the natural order of Jussieu lysimachiæ.

Art. XV. Professor Bigelow on the comparative Forwardness of the Spring in different Parts of the United States, in 1817.

Art. XV.   Professor Bigelow on the comparative Forwardness of the Spring in different Parts of the United States, in 1817.

We have been favoured with an ingenious memoir on this subject, by the author, Professor Bigelow of Boston; it is a part of the fourth volume of the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Professor Bigelow, availing himself of a hint given him some years ago by the late venerable Dr. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, ascertained, through the medium of correspondence with accurate observers in different parts of North America, the time of flowering, for "1817, of the common fruit-trees and a few other plants"—"found in most parts of the United States."

The peach-tree was the one most uniformly returned, and the following table exhibits the time of its flowering, in places sufficiently numerous and remote, to afford a fair specimen of these observations:

Places. Lat. Long. Peach-tree in blossom.

Fort Claiborne, Alab. Ter.

31°

50′

87°

50′

March

4

Charleston, S. C.

32

44

80

39

6

12

Richmond, Va.

37

40

77

50

23

Ap. 6

Lexington, Ky.

38

6

85

8

April

6

15

Baltimore, Md.

39

21

77

48

9

Philadelphia, P.

39

56

75

8

15

New-York, N. Y.

40

42

74

9

21

26

Boston, Mass.

42

23

70

52

May

9

Albany, N. Y.

43

39

73

30

12

Brunswick, Me.

43

53

69

55

15

[12]

Montreal, Can.

45

35

73

11

12

Professor Bigelow infers, "that the difference of season between the northern and southern extremities of the country is not less than two months and a half." "Difference of longitude does not seem very materially to affect the Floral Calendar within the United States." It appears, that in the same year peach-trees were in blossom at Valencia, in Spain, about the 19th of March; the apple-tree near London, May 8th; the cherry-tree and pear-tree at Geneva, in Switzerland, April 3d.

We hope that this research will be prosecuted in the manner it has thus been happily begun. It evidently affords an excellent criterion of the actual temperature, on a scale more extensive than it is practicable to obtain from thermometrical registers.

Floral Calendars kept in various parts of the United States would afford very interesting information, as to the changes of climate in particular places; a common topic of popular remarks but generally with few and inaccurate data.

Art. XVI. A Journal of the Progress of Vegetation near Philadelphia.

Art. XVI.   A Journal of the Progress of Vegetation near Philadelphia between the 20th of February and the 20th of May, 1816, with occasional Zoological Remarks. By C. S. Rafinesque.

The importance of observations on the annual progress of vegetation is obvious, and, as connected with agriculture, gardening, &c., eminently useful. Comparative observations acquire a particular degree of interest, when made by skilful observers, at the same time, but at different places. Dr. Bigelow, of Boston, issued a circular, proposing that such contemporaneous observations should be made in the spring of 1817; and I wish that his request may have been attended to, when the collection of those observations may afford valuable materials for an American Calendar of Flora. The blossoming of plants is easily watched, but their foliation and budding ought not to be neglected. Having been prevented, by various causes, from keeping an exact record of the progress of vegetation near New-York in 1817, I submit an accurate journal which I had kept the year before, at Philadelphia, in which I hope that some interesting facts may be noticed. Dr. Benjamin Barton has published a sketch of a Calendar of Flora for Philadelphia, in his Fragments on the Natural History of Pennsylvania; by comparing it with mine, many material differences may be traced, which evince a gradual change of temperature, although the spring of 1816 was remarkably cold and late. The greater quantity of species observed by me may, besides, render this journal a sort of vernal Flora of the neighbourhood of Philadelphia; and many species found by me are not to be met in the Flora Philadelphica of Dr. William Barton.

February 20. The Hyacinthus orientalis begins to show its flowers, and on the

24. In full blossom, as well as Convallaria majalis, in rooms.

25. The grass begins to look greenish in some parts.

26. Seen the first larva of insect in a pond.

27. The Motacilla sialis, or bluebird, is heard for the first time.

28. The first shad (Clupea sapidissima) is taken in the Delaware, while on the same day, the first smelt (Salmo eperlanoides) was taken in the Raritan, at New-Brunswick.

March 1. The Tulipa gesneriana, and Hesperis matronalis, are in blossom at the windows: the suckers (genus Catostomus) appear in the fish-market.

2. The catkins of the Alnus serrulatus begin to swell.

3. Those of Salix Caprea begin to appear.

4. The grass looks green by patches in the country.

5. The leaves of Veronica officinalis, Plantago virginiana, Saxifraga virginica, &c. are quite unfolded.

6. The new leaves of Kalmia latifolia begin to appear.

7. The spathas of Spathyema fetida, or Fothos fetida, begin to appear in blossom.

8. The Alnus serrulatus is in full blossom.

10. Found several mosses and ferns in blossom; these last were covered with capsules or old fructification: they were Asplenium ebeneum, Aspidium marginale, Asp. acrostichoides, Polypodium medium, N. Sp., &c.

11. Seen the first spider, in the country, brown, oblong, walking. A fall of snow at night.

12. Seen in blossom, at the windows, Narcissus tazzetta, N. janguilla, and several saffrons, genus Crocus, &c.

14. The grass looks quite green; the Draba verna? is in blossom in the State-House garden, the Viburnum tinus, Primula acaulis, &c. in the rooms, &c. The following fish are at market: white perch, (Perca mucronata, Raf.) yellow perch, (Polyprion fasciatum, Raf.) mamoose sturgeon, (Accipenser marginatur, Raf.) elk-oldwives, (Sparus crythrops, Raf.) &c.

15. The Populus fastigiata, Lombardy poplar, begins to show its catkins.

17. The big-eye herring (Clupea megalops) begin to be seen at the fish-market.

18. Many plants begin to grow and show their leaves.

19. A fall of snow. The first shad (Clupea sapidissima) appear in New-York: they are now common here.

20. Crocus aureus in blossom in gardens; likewise Iris persica, &c.

21. Betula lenta begin to show the catkins.

22. Galanthus nivalis, and Lamium amplexicaule, are in blossom in gardens at Cambden.

24. Populus fastigiata, and Salix caprea, are in full bloom.—The gooseberry bushes shoot their leaves.

25. Populus angulata in blossom at Cambden.

26. Salix babylonica begins to blossom and shoot the leaves. Viburnum prunifolium is budding.

27. Draba verna? is in seed already in Cambden: the Rhododendron maximum begins to shoot in gardens.

28. Juniperus virginiana is in bloom. Saxifraga virginica begins to show its flowers. Laurus benzoin, and Cornus florida, are budding.

April 1. In the morning, a large flight of wild geese went over the city northwards, making a great noise. In the afternoon there was a thunder storm from the southwest.

2. The frogs begin to croak. Found in blossom near Cambden, Arabis rotundifolia, Raf., A. lyrata, Saxifraga virginica, Draba verna? Betula lenta, &c. Pinus inops is budding.

3. Seen the first swallow. Found in blossom on the Schuylkill, Fumaria cucullaria, Anemone thalictroides, Saxifraga virginica, many ferns and mosses.

4. The fresh-water turtle (Testudo picta) begins to show itself.

7. Found in blossom to-day, Hepatica triloba, Laurus benzoin, Sanguinaria canadensis, Spathyema fetida, Acer rubrum, &c. The first bee is seen.

10. In blossom at the woodlands, Viola blanda, Luzula filamentosa, Raf., Gnaphalium? plantageneum, &c.

12. In blossom at Cambden, Viola lanceolata, and Houstonia cerulea.

14. The apricot-trees begin to blossom in gardens. Acernegundo is in bloom at Gray's Ferry.

15. Seen the first butterfly—it was small and gray. Found in blossom, near Cambden, Phlox subulata, Arabis parviflora, Raf., and Vaccinium ligustrinum.

18. Seen in blossom, Epigea repens, Carex acuta, and Taraxacum dens-leonis. In gardens, the peach and cherry trees are in bloom. Observed many insects. The Camellia, the Magnolia chinensis, &c. are seen in the hot-house of the Woodlands.

20. The first snake is seen, Coluber trivittata, Raf. Also a beautiful large butterfly, red and black. The Salix vitellina, and Capsella bursa. (Thlaspi bursa-pastoris,) are in blossom.

21. Found in blossom, near Gray's Ferry, Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, and Sedum ternatum, both naturalized. Likewise the Populus tremuloides, and Mespelus canadensis. The leaves of Podophyllum pettatum are fully expanded.

23. Seen in full bloom in gardens, the pear-tree, plum-tree, Riber grossularia, and R. rubrum.

24. Found in blossom along the Schuylkill, Aguilegia canadensis, Hyacinthus botryoides, Ranunculus fascicularis, Violapapilionacea. V. decumbens, Raf., Houstonia cerulea, Cerastium pumilum, Raf.

25. Found in blossom near Cambden, Viola pedata, V. lanceolata, V. ovata, Raf., V. primulifolia, Arabis parviflora, Raf., Cerastium pumilum, Raf., Carex acuta, Meopilus botryapium, Laurus sassafras, Cercis canadensis, Potentilla simplex, Andromeda racemoca.

28. Seen in blossom in gardens, Calycanthus floridus, Syringa persica, Phlox pilosa, &c. The leaves of Liriodendron tulipifera, Æsculus hippocastanum, Populus fastigiata, P. angulata, are unfolded.

30. In blossom on the Schuylkill, Obolaria virginiana, Anemone trifolia, Hydrastis canadensis, &c.

May 1. In blossom in the Neck, Cerastium vulgatum? Veronica serpyllifolia, V. arvensis, Ranunculus bulbosus, Viola cucultata.

3. Found above the Falls of the Schuylkill, Viola striata, V. concolor, V. primulifolia, V. blanda, Fumaria aurea, F. cucullaria, Charophyllum procumbens, Uvularia sessitifolia, U. perfoliata, Cercis canadensis, Arabis falcata, Stellaria pubera, Erigeron pulchellum, Orchis spectabilis, Hydrastis canadensis, Dentaria diphylla, Azalea nudiflora, &c.

4. Found on the Vissahikon, Arabis bulbosa, Panax trifolium, Viola pectata, V. rotundifolia, Cardamine pennsylvanica, Krigia virginica, and several grasses.

7. Found in blossom over the Schuylkill, Laurus sassafras, Viburnum prunifolium, Aronia arbutifolia, A. melanocarpa, Fragaria virginica, Cerastium nutans, Raf., Convallaria majalis, naturalized, and several species of the genus Vaccinium.

10. Found below the falls of the Schuylkill, Floerkea uliginosa, Viburnum acerifolium, Oxalis violacea, Cerastium tenuifolium, lechoma hederacea, &c.: and the following above the Falls—Trillium cernuum, Viola pubescens, V. pennsylvanica, Hydrophyllum virginicum, Polemonium reptans, Senecio aureus, Saxifraga pennsylvanica, Staphylea trifoliata, Obolaria virginica, Caltha palustris, Ranunculus abortivus, &c.

11. Seen the first bat.

12. Near Haddonfield, Bartsia coccinea, Helonias bullata, Trifolium repens, &c.

15. Found between Cambden and Haddonfield, Trifolium pratense, Silene virginica, Antirrhinum canadense, Lithospermum tenellum, Raf., Festucatenella, Seleranthus annuus, Oxalis biflora, Raf., Poa rubra, Vaccinium corymbosum, Viola palmata, V. parvifolia, Raf., Rubus flagellaris, &c. Also in blossom, Quercus rubra, Q. obtusiloba, Q. alba, &c.

20. Found near Burlington, Plantago virginica, Euphorbia ipecacuanha, Comptonia asplenifolia, Myosotis lappula, Senecio obovatus, Scirpus acicularis, Lithospermum trinervum, Raf., L. tenellum, Raf., &c.; besides several Carex.

Art. XVII. Description of a New Species of North American Marten, (Mustela vulpina).

Art. XVII.   Description of a New Species of North American Marten, (Mustela vulpina) by C. S. Rafinesque.

The regions watered by the Missouri are inhabited by many animals, as yet unknown to the zoologists, although many have been noticed by travellers. A species of marten has lately been presented to the Lyceum of Natural History in New-York, which was brought from that country, and appears to belong to a peculiar species, very different from the common martens of Europe, Asia, and America, although it has, in common with it, the character of the yellow throat; but the head, feet, and tail, afford so many peculiar characters, that no doubt can be entertained of its diversity. I have, therefore, given to it the name of Mustela vulpina, or Fox Marten, owing to its head and tail being somewhat similar to that of a fox.

Mustela Vulpina. Definition—Brown, three large yellowish spots underneath on the throat, breast, and belly; cheeks, inside of the ears, and a spot on the nape, white; tail tipped with white one-third of total length; feet blackish, toes white.

Description.—This animal is of a fine shape: its size is rather above mediocrity, being about half a foot high, and the total length being twenty-seven inches, whereof nine form the tail. The general colour of the fur is of a drab brown, and it is neither coarse nor very fine. The head is elongated, oblong, about four inches long, shaped like that of a fox; the snout is narrow; the nose is black, notched, and granulated, furnished on each side with black whiskers, two inches long: there are three long black hairs, or vibrissa, above each eye, and a few shorter ones scattered behind them on the cheeks, chin, and tip of the lower jaw, which is white: the cheeks are whitish, and there is a white spot on the nape of the neck: the ears are large, broad, and white inside. There are three large, oblong spots, on the throat, breast, and belly; this last is the largest; that on the breast the smallest. The fore legs are shorter than the hind ones, and have, behind, three very long hairs or vibrissa: the feet and toes of all the legs are covered with long fur; the former have a dark brown or blackish ring, and the latter are of a dirty white: there are five long toes to all the feet, of which the inner one is the shortest; the nails are white, retractible, and shorter than the fur. The teeth are as in the genus Mustela, and white; those of the lower jaw are larger and stronger: the grinders are four on each side; they are broad, trifid, with the middle lobe sharp and very long: the tusks, or dogteeth, are very strong, curved, and approximated, leaving a very small place for the incisores, which are very small, very short, and flat; the two lateral ones on each side are situated diagonally, the second behind, and the two middle ones are only half the size of the others. The tail is bushy, particularly at the top, where there is a white pencil of long hairs; the brown of the remainder is darker than on the body.

From the above accurate description, it will appear evident that this animal is very different from the common marten of North America. It must be a ferocious little animal, and very fierce; which is indicated by the strength of the teeth.

Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Scytalus Cupreus, or Copper-head Snake.

Art. XVIII.   Natural History of the Scytalus Cupreus, or Copper-head Snake. By C. S. Rafinesque.

After the rattlesnake, the copper-head snake is the most dreaded in the northern states, being the next largest venomous snake: he is also more common in the cold parts, where the former is very rare. Strange as it may seem, this conspicuous and dangerous animal has escaped the notice of naturalists, and is not found described in Shaw nor Lacepede. Having seen two of them near Fishkill, in the summer of 1817, I endeavoured to describe them completely, and investigate their history. They were both killed in a meadow, and one of them while sleeping coiled up near a fence; a slight stroke of a rod was sufficient, as usual with venomous snakes. It appears that they are killed much easier than the innocent snakes; these are often seen to revive after an apparent death, and do not really die until the next sunset; while venomous snakes do not easily revive, particularly if the head is slightly bruised.

This snake is known by a variety of names in different parts of the State of New-York, since he has every where attracted the attention of the inhabitants: these names are, copper-head, copper-snake, chunk-head, copper-adder, copper-viper, copper-belly, pilot-snake, deaf-adder, deaf-snake; and in New-England, by the names rattlesnake's mate and red adder, &c. They have all been given in reference to his colour, or to some presumed peculiarities in his manners, &c. Chunk-head is a vulgar expression, meaning thick-head or blunt-head. He has been called sometimes pilot-snake, on a false supposition that he was the pilot or guide of the rattlesnake; and he has been considered as deaf, because he is easily surprised, and does not appear to hear the noise of your approach.

It belongs to the genus scytalus of Daudin, &c., which differs from the Boa of Linnæus, as the genus Vipera does from Coluber, being provided with fangs. I have given to it the name of Scytalus Cupreus, which means coppered scytalus. The following definition of the species may be considered as comparative and characteristic.

Scytalus Cupreus. Tail one-eighth of total length, with 45 caudal plates entirely brown; 150 abdominal plates, the last very broad; head oval, coppered above, yellow underneath; scales carinated on the back, which is coppered, with reddish brown rings cross-shaped; belly variegated of brownish.

Description. Total length about three feet; body thicker than in the innocent snakes. Head large, broad, oval, obtuse, very distinct from the neck, nearly two inches long, flattened, coppered brown above, and covered with large, smooth scales; yellow underneath, as well as the neck, and with rhomboidal smooth scales. Mouth very large; fangs yellowish white. Back flattened anteriorly, a little angular in the middle, covered with small rhomboidal, obtuse, keeled scales; those of the sides larger and smooth, not keeled; centre of the back of a brownish copper colour; sides of a bright copper; broad bands or rings, becoming forked on each side, and assuming nearly the shape of a St. Andrew's cross; they are of a reddish brown: there is a round spot opposite to the sinusses, and the scales of the sides are minutely dotted of brown. The abdominal plates are 150, beginning under the head; the last, covering the vent, is very broad, double the other: they are of a shining, pale copper colour, with two longitudinal and lateral rows of great, irregular, brown spots, with some light brownish clouds between them, and each plate is marginated of whitish. The belly is very flat and broad, about 1¼ inch in diameter; and the skin may be distended on the sides, when, the animal is not fed. Tail short, tapering gradually, about four inches long, cylindrical, brown, without spots, with 45 plates underneath, and having at the end a small, obtuse, horn claw, of an oblong, compressed, obtuse shape, and carinated underneath.

This snake has many of the habits of the rattlesnake; he is very slow in his motions, rather clumsy, owing to his thick shape and short tail. He retires in winter into caves, hollow rocks, and trees, where he lies, in a torpid state, from November to April; several have been found coiled up together, the head lying over the back: it is in the same situation he sleeps in the fields. When found in the torpid state, they may be carried without waking; but might wake in a warm room. They do not eat during all that time: their food consists of birds, frogs, mice, and even squirrels, which they catch by surprise, as they do not climb on trees. They kill their large prey by breathing a poisonous effluvia, crushing it in their folds, and they swallow it whole after covering it with their clammy saliva. They can remain a very long time without a meal, and one meal is a long time digesting.

They are generally found in meadows, pastures, and the edge of woods. They creep slovenly through the grass, and if surprised by the sight of man, they assume an erect and threatening posture, darting their tongue and swelling their head; but they do not attack men, unless alarmed and struck. They are considered more dangerous than the rattlesnake, because they do not give notice of their vicinity, and lie concealed in the grass; but they are easily killed, when assuming the threatening posture, by a slight touch of a cane, spade, or any other instrument. The effects of their bite is similar to that of the rattlesnake, and cured in the same way, by the prompt application of the Aristolochia serpentaria, Polygala senega, Prenanthes serpentaria, Macrotry serpentaria, &c. and other plants, bearing in consequence the name of snakeroots.

This snake is found in New-England, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, &c., and perhaps all over the United States.

Art. XIX. On a Method of Augmenting the Force of Gunpowder.

Art. XIX.   On a Method of Augmenting the Force of Gunpowder.

Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from Colonel George Gibbs.

I employed, the last year, a man in blowing rocks, and having seen an account of a method of substituting a portion of quick lime for a part of the gunpowder usually employed, I was induced to make a number of experiments upon it. I now send you the results in the certificate of the person employed, whose statement might be relied on, even if I had not superintended myself a number of the experiments.

"Sunswick Farms, Oct. 19, 1817.—I certify that, having been employed by Colonel Gibbs in blasting rocks on his farm, I, by his orders, made use of a composition of one part quick lime and two parts gunpowder, and uniformly found the same charge to answer equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder. I made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner, as well as several hundreds in the usual way, and can therefore depend upon the accuracy of this statement. I found, however, that when the powdered lime was mixed with the gunpowder the day before, that the effect was diminished. It should be always used the day it is mixed.

(Signed) T. Pomeroy."

This preparation was made generally in the morning, put in a bottle and well corked, to prevent the access of the external air. The rationale of the process was not explained in the original recommendation, but it soon occurred to me, that it must be owing to the desiccation of the gunpowder by the lime.

The attraction of moisture by gunpowder, is known to be very great: according to Rees's Cyclopedia, upwards of 16 per cent. has been absorbed, and that the removal, simply, from near the fire to the corner of the room, produces a considerable change in its weight. I presume, therefore, that the lime, which in its caustic state has also a great affinity to water, attracts a portion of it from the powder, and leaves it in a state of dryness best fitted for inflammation. But if the lime should remain too long mixed with the powder, it would probably attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre, and, according to Count Rumford's idea, destroy a great part of the power. If also left exposed, attractions of moisture would take place from the atmosphere, the gunpowder would remain surcharged with humidity as before, and the lime would be only an inert mass.

The examination of this subject led me to consider the increase of the power of gunpowder in various situations, and of its use in the field. It is well known that after a few discharges a cannon becomes heated, and the range is much greater, as well as the recoil. The charge of powder is therefore reduced about one quarter, to produce the original effect. As I have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact I shall take this opportunity of mentioning, that it appears to arise from the same cause as the first explained, viz. the desiccation of the powder. No person will dispute the heat acquired by a cannon, or even a musket, after repeated discharges; and this heat must volatilize or destroy a great portion of the moisture combined with the powder, assist its speedy inflammation, and perhaps add to its power, by causing a more perfect combustion of the inflammable parts of the gunpowder. This would cause a much greater volume of gas to be produced, and the high temperature would also greatly augment its elasticity; and it is well known that the effects of gunpowder depend upon the rapid production and high degree of elasticity of a great quantity of aeriform fluids or gases.

Art. XX. On The Connexion between Magnetism and Light.

Art. XX.   On The Connexion between Magnetism and Light. By Col. Gibbs.

Extract from a Letter to the Editor.

I visited, the last year, the mine of magnetic iron at Succassunny, belonging to Governor Dickerson of New-Jersey. The mine had not been worked for a year past, and I did not descend it. The proprietor, a gentleman of distinguished science, informed me of a singular circumstance attending it, which was too important to be left unnoticed. The mine is worked at the depth of 100 feet; direction of the bed, northeast and southwest; inclination nearly perpendicular. The ore in the upper part of the bed is magnetic, and has polarity; but that raised from the bottom has no magnetism at first, but acquires it after it has been some time exposed to the influence of the atmosphere. This fact, of which there is no doubt, struck me as most singular. I could not recollect any similar observation; and it is only lately that I have found that Werner had observed, that iron sand, raised from the depth of 100 feet, had no magnetism. See Rees's Cyclopedia, Art. Sand.

I could only account for this circumstance by supposing that magnetism existed not in the interior of the earth, as was supposed, but only on the surface, and in such bodies as received this principle from atmospheric, or celestial influence.

The late discovery of the magnetic influence of the violet rays of light, by M. Morechini, a notice of which has since reached us in the journals, connected with the above fact, leads me to believe that light is the great source of magnetism. A learned foreigner,[13] whose residence in this country has contributed much to its scientific improvement, has also informed me that other substances than metallic have been found, by compression, to be magnetic.

It is well known that the violet ray is the most refrangible, or has the most attraction to matter. But there are other rays, which Herschel, who some years since discovered them, calls invisible rays, which are still more refrangible, are next beyond the violet, when refracted, and partake of most of its properties, except that they are invisible. I have not yet seen any account of the experiments of M. Morechini, other than the notice in the journal; but I trust I shall soon be able to determine whether those invisible rays do not possess the magnetic power as well as the violet; or, perhaps, possess it exclusively.

As the refraction of the atmosphere in the polar circles, is at least ten times greater than in the tropics, a greater quantity of the magnetic rays will there be separated and combined than elsewhere; and of course arises excess of magnetism. Hence the direction of magnetic bodies towards the northern and southern extreme regions. The great absorption and emission of light in the polar regions, by the ice and snow, may cause the extraordinary illumination of that country during the absence of the sun, and the emission of the magnetic rays with electricity may, perhaps, give us the aurora borealis.

The coincidence of the diurnal variation of the compass with the solar influence, deserves particular notice, and will have considerable weight on this subject.

That there are many facts which cannot readily be explained by the theory of light, I shall not deny; but in the infancy of this system we may be allowed to hope that future observations may enable us to remove present difficulties. One thing must be admitted, that no theory has heretofore been published relating to magnetism, which has received or seems entitled to much confidence. In your next number I hope to be able to furnish you with further remarks on this subject; but, I have no doubt that philosophy will finally determine that we owe to the solar ray light, heat, electricity, and magnetism.

G. GIBBS.

Sunswick, January, 1818.

Art. XXI. On a new Means of producing Heat and Light.

Art. XXI.   On a new Means of producing Heat and Light, with an Engraving, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. of Boston.

Boston, May 7, 1818.

To Professor Silliman.

Sir,
If the following account of a method of using tar and steam as fuel, recently invented by Mr. Samuel Morey, should be found sufficiently interesting to occupy a place in the Journal of Science, I am sensible its usefulness will be much extended through that medium of information.

The inventor, not unskilled in chemistry, and aware of the attraction of oxygen for carbon, conceived it practicable to convert the constituents of water into fuel, by means of this affinity.

Whatever may be the fact, chemically considered, the operation, in various experiments, promises to afford a convenient method of applying to use several of the most combustible substances, not hitherto employed as fuel. By the process I shall briefly describe, all carbonaceous fluids may be conveniently burnt, and derive great force from their combination with the oxygen and hydrogen gases of water or steam, before or at the moment of ignition.

NEW FIRE APPARATUS.

Fig. 1.       Fig. 2.

A tight vessel, cylindrically shaped, was first employed, containing rosin, connected with a small boiler by a pipe which entered near the bottom, and extended nearly its length, having small apertures, over which were two inverted gutters, inclining or sloping upwards over each other; the upper one longer than the other, intended to detain the steam in the rosin, in its way to the surface. The rosin being heated, carburetted hydrogen gas would issue from the outlet, or pipe, inserted near the top of the vessel, and being ignited, afforded a small blaze, about as large as that of a candle; but, when the steam was allowed to flow, this blaze would instantly shoot out many hundred times its former bulk, to the distance of two or three feet.

It is presumed the steam was decomposed, and carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, produced as the steam passed, very near the hot bottom of the vessel.

Another apparatus was constructed, consisting of two vessels, one within the other, having a cover common to both; the inner one to contain tar, (as a more convenient substance than rosin;) the outer vessel to contain water, which surrounds the other, and lies under its bottom; or, in other words, a vessel of tar set into a vessel of boiling water. The boiler has a lining of sheet copper, or tin, to promote the ebullition. The tar vessel being riveted to the cover, holes are made through its sides, near to the cover, to allow the steam to pass in, and act on its surface. The cover being secured on, a safety valve is provided for the steam vessel, and two cocks; one over the tar, the other over the water, are fixed contiguously; the first has a tube, or is elongated to reach nearly to the bottom of the tar, which ascends, and is driven out by the pressure of the steam on its surface. Both cocks conduct to a pipe, wherein is placed a large wire, or metallic rod, which about fills the tube, and is perforated obliquely, or zig zag, to increase the length of the passage, and to mingle the tar and steam more intimately. The gases, or vapours, issue from a small orifice at the end of the pipe; and, being ignited by a little fire, into which it is directed, an intense and voluminous blaze is produced, and continues as long as the materials remain unexhausted. A hot brick, instead of the fire, answers the same purpose.

This apparatus contained but about one quart of tar, (which must always be nicely strained,) and it lasted one and a half hour, and the flame was sufficient to fill a common fireplace, if not allowed to escape, by its violence, up the chimney. Its force will be according to the elasticity of the steam. I regret being unable, since, to make more exact and varied experiments, to demonstrate the economy of this fuel. This point, however, and the chemical facts, will be the subject of a future communication. And probably a form of a stove may be devised, wherein it may be used for the purposes of warmth, light, and cooking; and another apparatus to light streets.

But this invention will be of more special use as fuel for steam engines applied to navigation—the purpose principally for which I have purchased the patent right.

This may be the subject of another communication.

Art. XXII. On the Changes which have taken place in the Wells of Water situated in Columbia, South-Carolina.

Art. XXII.   On the Changes which have taken place in the Wells of Water situated in Columbia, South-Carolina, since the Earthquakes of 1811-12. By Edward Darrell Smith, M. D., Professor of Chemical and Experimental Philosophy and Mineralogy in the South-Carolina College.

To Professor Silliman.

Dear Sir,
In answer to your inquiry respecting the changes in our wells, since the memorable period of the earthquakes, I would make the following observations:

These tremendous convulsions of nature commenced in December, 1811, and were continued, at intervals, until the latter end of the succeeding month of March, with different degrees of violence, in this and some of the adjacent states. In November, 1812, I visited this town, and then understood that the wells, which are generally very deep, had an abundance of water in them. This continued to be the case for about one year after; and in the College well, in particular, which was a remarkably fine one, there were always about twelve feet of water, notwithstanding its daily consumption by more than two hundred persons. Shortly after this time, many of the wells in the town began to fail in their usual supply of water, although they were frequently cleaned out and occasionally deepened. Their state became worse every year, until, at length, about three years since, some of them proved to be entirely dry, and most of the others had their water turbid, and diminished to the depth of only two or three feet. A little anterior to this period, what were called the dry years had commenced, and there were, comparatively, very scanty falls of rain until the last spring; since when there has been a very large quantity. To elucidate the subject more fully, it may not be amiss to give some topographical account of the town of Columbia. About a mile from the eastern bank of the Cogaree the town begins to be thickly built up, and at this distance the elevation of ground is supposed to be one hundred feet above the level of the river in its ordinary state. The hill is then tolerably level for the space of a mile or more in its western extent, and its soil is principally composed of a loose, porous sand, with which few, if any, stones are intermixed at any depth that has yet been penetrated. In attempting to account for the failure of the well-waters, it was supposed by some that the earthquakes had produced such changes in the loose texture of the soils, that the veins of water which used to supply the wells, had sunk beneath the level of these reservoirs; but on this head it is to be observed, that there was no remarkable failure of water for one or two years after these changes were supposed to have been effected. Others again, connecting the greatest failure of water with the concurring dearth of rain, conceived that the fact might be explained by the droughts occasioning a deficiency in the river-water, and thus cutting off the supply which they supposed had heretofore percolated from the margin of the river into the wells. If their hypothesis was correct, it was believed that the difficulty would be removed, either by deepening the wells, or by subsequent large supplies of rain. Many wells were immediately deepened from two to eight or ten feet, but the remedy proved very inadequate. And since the great falls of rain, within a year past, although there are somewhat larger supplies of water in some wells, yet there is not the half as much as existed before the earthquakes. The College well, although deepened several feet, does not now contain generally more than four or five feet of water. I must not omit to remark, that two wells, situated in a longitudinal line from north to south, with regard to each other, and also in a lower spot of ground, never failed entirely, although they diminished considerably, and now yield more copious supplies than any others.

Whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon, the effects are so inconvenient, and it is so generally believed that they are likely to be permanent, that the inhabitants of the town are beginning to build cisterns, in order to accumulate artificial reservoirs of water.

Art. XXIII. Respiration of Oxygen Gas.

Art. XXIII.   Respiration of Oxygen Gas.

It is not extraordinary, when oxygen gas was first discovered, and found to be the principle of life to the whole animal creation, that extravagant expectations should have been formed as to its medicinal application. Disappointment followed of course, and naturally led to a neglect of the subject; and, in fact, for some years, pneumatic medicine has gone into discredit, and public opinion has vibrated to the extreme of incredulity. Partaking in a degree in this feeling, we listened with some reluctance to a very pressing application on this subject during the last summer. A young lady, apparently in the last stages of decline, and supposed to be affected with hydrothorax, was pronounced beyond the reach of ordinary medical aid. As she was in a remote town in Connecticut, where no facilities existed towards the attainment of the object, we felt no confidence that, even if oxygen gas were possessed of any efficacy in such cases, it would actually be applied in this case, in such a manner as to do any good. Yielding, however, to the anxious wishes of friends, we furnished drawings for such an apparatus as might be presumed attainable, and also written and minute directions for preparing, trying, and administering the gas. It was obtained from nitrate of potash, (saltpetre,) not because it was the best process, but because the substance could be obtained in the place, and because a common fire would serve for its extrication. The gas obtained had, of course, a variable mixture of nitrogen or azot, and probably on an average, might not be purer than nearly the reversed proportions of the atmosphere—that is, 70 to 80 per cent. of oxygen to 20 or 30 nitrogen; and it is worthy of observation, whether this circumstance might not have influenced the result.

Contrary to our expectations, the gas (as we are since informed by good authority) was skilfully prepared and perseveringly used. From the first, the difficulty of breathing and other oppressive affections were relieved: the young lady grew rapidly better, and in a few weeks entirely recovered her health. A respectable physician, conversant with the case, states, in a letter now before us, "that the inhaling of the oxygen gas relieved the difficulty of breathing, increased the operation of diuretics, and has effected her cure. Whether her disease was hydrothorax, or an anasarcous affection of the lungs, is a matter I believe not settled."

Should the revival of the experiments on the respiration of oxygen gas appear to be desired, it would not be difficult to simplify the apparatus and operations so as to bring them within the reach of an intelligent person, even although ignorant of chemistry: and this task, should there be occasion, we would cheerfully undertake to perform.

This interesting class of experiments ought to be resumed, not with the spirit of quackery, or of extravagant expectation, but with the sobriety of philosophical research; and it is more than probable that the nitrous oxyde which is now little more than a subject of merriment and wonder, if properly diluted and discreetly applied, would be productive of valuable effects.

Art. XXIV. On the Compound Blowpipe.

Art. XXIV.   On the Compound Blowpipe. Extract from the Journal de Physique, of Paris, for January 1818.[14]

CONCERNING HEAT.

"Heat, considered as one of the most important agents, especially in relation to chemistry, and even to mineralogy, has also been the subject of numerous labours, both with regard to the means of augmenting and of diminishing its effects.

"To the former belong the numerous experiments made, especially in England, with the blowpipe, supplied by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases. Mr. Clarke has evidently been more extensively engaged in these researches than any other person, as our readers have perceived in the extracts which we have given from the labours of this learned chemist; but it is proper also to give publicity to the protest (réclamation) made to us in favour of Mr. Silliman.

"We have already stated that Mr. Hare, of Philadelphia, first conceived the idea of forming a blowpipe with explosive gas; but as we have not been conversant with the memoirs of the Society of Arts and Sciences of Connecticut, we have not made mention of Mr. Silliman.

"The fact is, that this chemist, Professor at New-Haven, published, on the 7th of May,[15] 1812, a memoir containing the results of experiments made upon a very great number of bodies, until that time reputed to be infusible; and, among others, upon the alkaline earths, the decomposition of which he effected.

"The experiments of Mr. Clarke were therefore subsequent; but, having been made upon a still more extensive list of substances, they are scarcely less interesting.

"It results then, from the experiments of Messrs. Hare, Silliman, Clarke, Murray, and Ridolfi, that there is really no substance which is infusible in the degree of heat produced by this kind of blowpipe.

"In this new department of physics, it is attempted not only to apply the blowpipe to a very great number of bodies, but so to modify the instrument or apparatus as to give it the highest degree of convenience, and especially to obviate the danger of explosion."

pp. 38 & 39.

REMARKS.

As the results produced by Mr. Hare's Compound Blowpipe, fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, continue to be mentioned in Europe, in many of the Journals, without any reference to the results long since obtained in this country, we republish the following statement of facts, which was, in substance, first published in New-York, more than a year since. It should be observed, that Mr. Tilloch has since published, in the Philosophical Magazine in London, the memoir which contained the American results, and there have been some other allusions to it in different European Journals, and to Mr. Hare's previous experiments; but still this interesting class of results continue to be attributed to others than their original discoverers.

Yale College, April 7, 1817.

Various notices, more or less complete, chiefly copied from English newspapers, are now going the round of the public prints in this country, stating that "a new kind of fire" has been discovered in England, or, at least, new and heretofore unparalleled means of exciting heat, by which the gems, and all the most refractory substances in nature, are immediately melted, and even in various instances dissipated in vapour, or decomposed into their elements. The first glance at these statements, (which, as regards the effects, I have no doubt are substantially true,) was sufficient to satisfy me, that the basis of these discoveries was laid by an American discovery, made by Mr. Robert Hare of Philadelphia, in 1801. In December of that year, Mr. Hare communicated to the Chemical Society of Philadelphia his discovery of a method of burning oxygen and hydrogen gases in a united stream, so as to produce a very intense heat.

In 1802, he published a detailed memoir on the subject, with an engraving of his apparatus, and he recited the effects of his instrument; some of which, in the degree of heat produced, surpassed any thing before known.

In 1802, and 1803, I was occupied with him, in Philadelphia, in prosecuting similar experiments on a more extended scale; and a communication on the subject was made to the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. The memoir is printed in their transactions; and Mr. Hare's original memoir was reprinted in the Annals of Chemistry, in Paris, and in the Philosophical Magazine, in London.

Mr. Murray, in his System of Chemistry, has mentioned Mr. Hare's results in the fusion of several of the earths, &c. and has given him credit for his discovery.

In one instance, while in Europe, in 1806, at a public lecture, I saw some of them exhibited by a celebrated Professor, who mentioned Mr. Hare as the reputed author of the invention.

In December, 1811, I instituted an extended course of experiments with Mr. Hare's blowpipe, in which I melted lime and magnesia, and a long list of the most refractory minerals, gems, and others, the greater part of which had never been melted before, and I supposed that I had decomposed lime, barytes, strontites, and magnesia, evolving their metallic basis, which burnt in the air as fast as produced. I communicated a detailed account of my experiments to the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, who published it in their Transactions for 1812; with their leave it was communicated to Dr Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, and it was printed in the 4th number of that work. Hundreds of my pupils can testify that Mr. Hare's splendid experiments, and many others performed with his blowpipe, fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, have been for years past annually exhibited, in my public courses of chemistry in Yale College, and that the fusion and volatilization of platina, and the combustion of that metal, and of gold and silver, and of many other metals; that the fusion of the earths, of rock crystal, of gun flint, of the corundum gems, and many other, very refractory substances; and the production of light beyond the brightness of the sun, have been familiar experiments in my laboratory. I have uniformly given Mr. Hare the full credit of the invention, although my researches, with his instrument, had been pushed farther than his own, and a good many new results added.

It is therefore with no small surprise that, in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, for September, 1816, I found a translation of a very elaborate memoir, from a Scientific Journal, published at the Royal Institution in London, in which a full account is given of a very interesting series of experiments performed by means of Mr. Hare's instrument; or rather one somewhat differently arranged, but depending on the same principle. Mr. Hare's invention is slightly mentioned in a note, but no mention is made of his experiments, or of mine.

On a comparison of the memoir in question with Mr. Hare's and with my own, I find that very many of the results are identical, and all the new ones are derived directly from Mr. Hare's invention, with the following differences.—In Mr. Hare's, the two gases were in distinct reservoirs, to prevent explosion; they were propelled by the pressure of a column of water, and were made to mingle, just before their exit, at a common orifice. In the English apparatus, the gases are both in one reservoir, and they are propelled by their own elasticity, after condensation, by a syringe.

Professor Clarke, of Cambridge University, the celebrated traveller, is the author of the memoir in question; and we must presume that he was ignorant of what had been done by Mr. Hare and myself, or he would candidly have adverted to the facts.

It is proper that the public should know that Mr. Hare was the author of the invention, by means of which, in Europe, they are now performing the most brilliant and beautiful experiments; and that there are very few of these results hitherto obtained there, by the use of it, (and the publication of which has there excited great interest,) which were not, several years ago, anticipated here, either by Mr. Hare or by myself.

As I have cited only printed documents, or the testimony of living witnesses, I trust the public will not consider this communication as indelicate, or arrogant, but simply a matter of justice to the interests of American science, and particularly to Mr. Hare.

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN,

Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Yale College.

Art. XXV. The Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the Greenland Ice.

Art. XXV.   The Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the Greenland Ice.

In looking over the foreign journals, we find no articles of intelligence so interesting as those which respect the three subjects mentioned above. Indeed, as they have found their way into most of our newspapers, it is now generally known in this country, that, in consequence of the reported breaking up of the Greenland ice, an expedition has already left England, in two divisions, the one for the purpose of exploring a northwest passage to Asia, around the North American continent, by the way of Davis's Straits; the other, for effecting the same object by passing over the north pole.

If Horace thought that man almost impiously daring who first adventured upon the open sea, what shall we say of the hardihood of the attempt to visit THE POLE?—the pole, which it is impossible to contemplate without awe—which, in all probability, has never been visited by any living being—where the dreary solitude has never been broken by human voice—where the sound of war has never been heard, and darkness and cold exert an almost undisputed dominion! What must be the emotions of that man who first stands upon the point of the earth's axis! Who, no longer partaking of the revolution, in circles of latitude, slowly revolves on the axis of his own body, once in twenty-four hours—to whom the sun does not rise or set, but, moving in a course very oblique to the horizon, makes scarcely a perceptible progress in twenty-four hours, and at the end of three months, when he has attained his noon, is only 23° 28′, on the arc of a vertical circle, above the horizon—to whom longitude is extinct, and who can move in no possible direction but south—to whom the stars are a blank, and to whom the polar star, could he see it, would appear in the zenith. Such are some of the most obvious results of a position on the pole. The man who first establishes himself on this sublime point, will have more reason for self-congratulation than he who led the Persian myriads into Greece, or he who pushed the Macedonians to the Indus.

On these interesting subjects, we beg leave to refer our readers to a very able treatise in the Quarterly Review for February, 1818, where all the topics at the head of this article are discussed with much learning and ability.—We extract the following passage:

"If an open navigation should be discovered across the polar basin, the passage over the pole or close to it, will be one of the most interesting events to science that has ever occurred. It will be the first time that the problem was practically solved with which the learners of geography are sometimes puzzled—that of going the shortest way between two places lying east and west, by taking a direction of north and south. The passage of the pole will require the undivided attention of the navigator. On approaching this point, from which the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and America, and every part of them, will bear south of him, nothing can possibly assist him in determining his course, and keeping on the right meridian of his destined place, but a correct knowledge of the time: and yet no means of ascertaining that time will be afforded him. The only time he can have, with any degree of certainty, as long as he remains on or near the pole, must be that of Greenwich, and this he can know only from good chronometers; for, from the general hazy state of the atmosphere, and particularly about the horizon, and the sameness in the altitude of the sun at every hour in the four-and-twenty, he must not expect to obtain an approximation even of the apparent time, by observation, and he will have no stars to assist him. All his ideas respecting the heavens and the reckonings of his time will be reversed, and the change not gradual, as in proceeding from the east to the west, or the contrary, but instantaneous. The magnetic needle will point to its unknown magnetic pole, or fly around from the point of the bowl in which it is suspended, and that which indicated north will now be south; the east will become the west, and the hour of noon will be that of midnight.

"These curious circumstances will probably be considered to mark the passage by the pole, as the most interesting of the two, while it will perhaps be found equally easy. We have, indeed, very little doubt, that if the polar basin should prove to be free from land about the pole, it will also be free of ice. A sea of more than two thousand miles in diameter, of unfathomable depth, (which is the case between Greenland and Spitzbergen,) and in constant motion, is not likely to be frozen over at any time. But if all endeavours to discover a passage to the Pacific by either route should prove unavailing, it will still be satisfactory to have removed every doubt on this subject by ascertaining the fact. In making the attempt, many objects interesting and important to science will present themselves to the observation of those who are engaged in the two expeditions. That which proceeds up Davis's Straits, will have an opportunity of adjusting the geography of the northeast coast of America, and the west coast of Greenland; and of ascertaining whether the latter be not an island or an archipelago of islands; and much curious information may be expected from both.

"They will ascertain, what is as yet but very imperfectly known, the depth, the temperature, the saltness, and the specific gravity of the sea-water in those high latitudes—the velocity of the currents, the state of atmospherical electricity in the arctic regions, and its connexion, at which we have glanced, with the inclination, declination, and intensity of force of the magnetic needle; on which subject alone, a collection of facts towards the upper part of Davis's Straits would be worth a voyage of discovery. It has, indeed, been long suspected that one of the magnetic poles will be found in this neighbourhood, as in no part of the world have such extraordinary phenomena been observed, or such irregularities in the vibration and the variation of the needle.

"A comparison of the magnetic influence near the pole, with what it has been observed to be on the equator, might lead to important results; and the swinging of a pendulum as near the pole as can be approached, to compare with the oscillations observed in the Shetland Islands, and in the southern hemisphere, would be a great point gained for science."

We have no room in this Number to consider the probability of success in this attempt, nor the question, whether the breaking up of the Greenland ice, and its passage to, and dissolution in, the south, have been attended with a chilling influence on the continents. That such a chilling effect might be extensively exerted, is certainly credible. Approaching some of the icebergs, in April 1805, on the shoals of Newfoundland, we were rendered very sensible of the vicinity of such dangerous neighbours, by the great chill in the air, long before they were visible; and when we had passed them, the weather again grew milder.

Perhaps it militates against the probability of finding the northern polar basin free of ice, that Captain Cook, in his approximation to the southern pole, in January, 1773, when in latitude 67° 15′ south, "could proceed no farther; the ice being entirely closed to the south, in the whole extent from east to west-southwest, without the least appearance of any opening." The advanced season of the year did not, however, permit Captain Cook to ascertain whether he could coast around this ice—whether it was ultimately attached to land, or was a part of a vast field extending to the south pole. This last is however highly improbable, because being found about 23° from the pole, it is hardly credible that it would occupy so extensive a region as to embrace the pole, and, perhaps extend as much farther beyond; especially as in similar latitudes in the opposite hemisphere, navigation is comparatively free, and has been pushed even to more than 80° of north latitude.

The scientific, as well as the commercial world, will wait with no small impatience for the termination of the two grand arctic expeditions, which are among the most original and daring, and may be among the most interesting and momentous hitherto undertaken by man.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] I trust the public will pardon me for stating, that various scientific friends, despairing of the revival of the Journal of Dr. Bruce, had, for some time, pressed me to undertake the editing of a Journal of Science. Considerations of personal friendship prevented me from listening to such proposals till the decline of Dr. Bruce's health, attended by the most alarming symptoms, rendered it very obvious that his Journal would not be revived. Towards the close of last November, in a personal interview, I communicated to him the design of the present work, at the same time offering to waive it, provided he considered it as probable that his own Journal would be resumed. Of this, however, he gave no encouragement; but, on the contrary, expressed his warm approbation of my undertaking, authorized me to consider him as a contributor, and to make public use of his name as a patron. It was not till after this that the annunciation of this work took place; and it is certain that had not all hope of the resumption of Dr. Bruce's Journal been completely cut off, this would not have appeared.

[2] The efforts of Stephen Elliott, Esq. of South Carolina, in regard to the botany of the Southern States, are particularly worthy of imitation and praise.

[3] From the MS. papers of the Connecticut Academy, now published by permission.

[4] See Kollmann's Harmony, p. 13, &c.

[5] Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XXVIII. p. 140.

[6] The propriety of making 25 : 36 the true ratio of the 5th will be manifest, when it is considered that this is the value of that interval as sounded by voices and perfect instruments; when the 3ds which compose it are made perfect. This interval, as found in the scale which has the fewest tempered concords possible referred to at the beginning of this essay, ought to be regarded as the true 5th, flattened by a comma, in the same manner as one of its component 3ds will be allowed by all to be flattened.

[7] The propriety of this limitation will be manifest, when we consider that in organ music, the chords are generally played more full, and are more protracted, than in music for other keyed instruments. It is harmony which constitutes its character, in a higher degree than in music for other instruments. Hence the harmony of the organ ought not to be impaired by including in our computations any music not adapted to it. If a similar examination of music for the piano-forte would afford a set of results essentially different from those of this proposition, this is no proof that it ought to have any concern in a system of temperament designed primarily for the organ, but merely that the same temperament cannot be equally adapted to different instruments. If, as is probable, such an examination would give essentially the same results, to introduce them would be superfluous.

[8] The smaller works of Phillips and Aikin were not then published; had they been, they could not have superseded Cleaveland; the same may be said of the respectable work of Professor Kidd, of Oxford University.

[9] A vast region in the interior of New-York and Pennsylvania is now fertilized by inexhaustible beds of sulphat of lime, (plaster of Paris,) which, till a very few years since, were not even known to exist.

Near New-Haven immense beds of green marble were discovered in 1811, during a mineralogical excursion: this beautiful material, closely resembling the verd antique, is now, on the spot, wrought into tables, fireplaces, and many other ornamental forms; and although the farmers had made fences of it for 150 years, no one suspected what it was till the study of mineralogy, in Yale College, brought it to light.

[10] See Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XLII. p. 182.

[11] In the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia this plant is called limosella tenuifolia.

[12] No return of this tree was made from Brunswick. The date of the cherry-tree is therefore substituted, which is usually in blossom at the same time.

[13] Mr. Correa de Serra, Minister of the King of Portugal.

[14] Communicated by a friend at Paris.

[15] See Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, and Bruce's Journal, Vol. I. p. 199.

CONTENTS.

Page

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a section of Massachusetts, on Connecticut river, with a part of New-Hampshire and Vermont, by Edward Hitchcock, A.M. Principal of Deerfield Academy

106

Art. II. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by Caleb Atwater, Esq.

116

Art. III. Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of Richmond, Virginia, by Mr. John Grammer, Jun.

125

Art IV. Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a part of the State of Indiana, by Mr. W. B. Stilson

131

Art. V. New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, Stilbite, Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c.

134

Art. VI. Account of the Strata perforated by, and of the Minerals found in, the great adit to the Southampton Lead Mine, by Mr. Amos Eaton, Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &c.

136

Art. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County, by the Rev. F. C. Schaeffer

139

Art. VIII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies, by Dr. Nugent

140

Art. IX. Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia on Staten-Island, with a Notice of its Geology, by James Pierce, Esq.

142

Art. X. On a curious substance found with the native Nitre of Kentucky and of Africa, by Samuel Brown, M.D.

146  

BOTANY.

Art. XI. Description of species of Sponges observed on the shores of Long-Island, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

149

Art. XII. Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, by the same

151  

ZOOLOGY.

Art. XIII. Description of the Phalæna Devastator—the Insect that produces the Cut-worm, by Mr. John P. Brace

154

Art. XIV. Description of the Exoglossum, a new genus of Fresh-water Fish, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

155  

PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Art. XV. On the Revolving Steam-Engine of Mr. Samuel Morey, communicated by John L. Sullivan, Esq.

157

Art. XVI. Cautions regarding Fulminating Powders

168  

USEFUL ARTS.

Art. XVII.

[16]

Account of a Parisian method of obtaining Gelatine from bones, by Mr. Isaac Doolittle

170

Art. XVIII. On the use of Distilled Seawater for domestic purposes—from the

Annales de Chimie

, &c.

172  

FINE ARTS.

Art. XIX. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Professor Fisher

176

Art. XX. Notice of Col. Trumbull's Picture of the Declaration of Independence

200  

INTELLIGENCE.

Art. XXI. An Address to the People of the Western Country

203

Art. XXII. Extract of a letter from Col. Gibbs, on the effect of light on the Magnetical power

207

Art. XXIII. On a new Lamp, without flame—from the Annals of Philosophy

ibid.

[16] ERRATUM.
In the text this Article was, by inadvertence, numbered XIX, and all the succeeding Articles of this Number are marked two higher than they ought to be.

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a Section of Massachusetts on Connecticut River.

Art. I.   Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a Section of Massachusetts on Connecticut River, with a Part of New-Hampshire and Vermont; by Edward Hitchcock, A. M. Principal of Deerfield Academy.

The geology of this tract, from a few miles south of Northampton in Massachusetts, to the north boundary of Brattleborough in Vermont, and of Chesterfield in New-Hampshire, is shown on the subjoined map. The primitive formation, except the argillite, is coloured vermilion; the secondary, blue; and the alluvial, gamboge yellow, according to Cleaveland. The alluvial part is elevated above the bed of Connecticut river from 10 to 100 feet, and, in most places, reposes on red sandstone. The soil in the northern part is generally argillaceous; but in the southern more siliceous. The secondary formation consists chiefly of detached eminences that rise abruptly from the plain, and are composed of red sandstone and puddingstone alternating, except the elevations A and B, (Holyoke and Tom) and a part of the range CD, passing through Deerfield and Greenfield, which are greenstone. The part coloured rose-red consists of argillite, sometimes alternating with mica slate, siliceous slate, or chlorite slate. It is thus coloured to show the extent of the argillite, and not from a belief that this rock is of the transition class; for in this region the argillite is undoubtedly primitive. Some quarries of this rock have been opened in Massachusetts; and in Vermont are extensively wrought. I have not learnt how far the argillite extends northward in Vermont and New-Hampshire. Its strata are almost perpendicular, inclining a few degrees to the west.

The primitive region on the west side of Connecticut river, included by the map, is made up of mica slate, as a prevailing rock, particularly in the northern part. Hornblende slate sometimes alternates with this, and sienite appears in various places, though its strata are generally thin. Limestone also occurs in Deerfield, Conway, Colrain, &c. of a dull brown colour. It contains so large a proportion of silex that it is often but little removed from granular quartz. Lime for building has sometimes been obtained from it. A range of granite, containing veins of lead ore, appears at Southampton, and proceeds to Hatfield. North of this, the other rocks cover it, and it does not again rise within the limits of the map.

Sienite is the prevailing rock on the east side of Connecticut river in the primitive region, more particularly in the southern part. In some places a narrow stratum of mica slate lies next to the conglomerate of the secondary formation, and a low range of graphic and common granite has been observed in Amherst and Leverett, lying next to the mica slate. Other veins of granite also traverse the sienite; and gneiss occurs in many places. The proportion of hornblende in the sienite is generally small, and mica is often present in considerable proportion. Porphyritic sienite is common in this quarter, and steatite occurs in its eastern part.

Most of the primitive region on the map is broken and mountainous, being made up of parallel ridges and detached eminences. The strata run nearly north and south, and dip to the east at angles between 20° and 60°. It would be easy to extend the map on the west to the top of Hoosack mountain, since the country is all primitive; and on the east the primitive continues, with a few exceptions, to the ocean. The map might also be extended to the boundary of Connecticut, by prolonging the primitive ranges with some divergency, and colouring the intermediate space secondary, except a narrow tract on the east side of Connecticut river, which is alluvial. These extensions were not thought necessary.

In the town of Gill, at E, there is a cataract in Connecticut river, from 30 to 40 feet in height; and it is believed that the alluvial region, and part of the secondary shown on the map from this fall to the place where the river passes between mount Holyoke and Tom, was formerly the bed of a lake: for the logs are still found undecayed in many places, from 10 to 20 feet below the surface; the river has evidently worn a passage between Holyoke and Tom: many of the hills on the northern part, and the sandstone on the plain, bear the marks of having been washed by water, and the channels of two rivers are still visible in Deerfield, the one 30, and the other 100 feet above the present bed of Connecticut river. Between mount Tom and the mountains west, there is a secondary plain of sufficient height to throw back the water over the supposed bed of the lake, before a passage was worn between Holyoke and Tom. South of these hills commences another alluvial and secondary tract, extending on both sides of the river to Haddam, in Connecticut, where the river passes between mountains, and perhaps this region also was the bed of a lake.

The plain on which the village of Deerfield stands, with the adjoining meadows, is sunk 50 or 60 feet below the general alluvial tract, and was undoubtedly the bed of a pond, or small lake, that remained after the larger one of which we have spoken had subsided. When this larger lake decreased, Deerfield river was cut off from a communication with the Connecticut by the mountain CD, and the plain extending westward from this mountain. There is a tradition, derived from the aboriginals of Deerfield, that the passage in which Deerfield river now runs through the mountain CD, was begun by a squaw with a clam-shell.

On the margin of these meadows, at considerable elevation, numerous small conical excavations appear. On digging below the surface, stones are found calcined by fire. These are probably the spots where Indian wigwams formerly stood. Many vestiges of the aboriginals are frequently found in Deerfield, such as beads, stone pots, mortars, pipes, axes, and the barbs of arrows and pikes. Near the village they had a burial-ground, where many skeletons have been uncovered. A roll of human hair was lately found here, by Mr. J. C. Hoyt of Deerfield, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and three inches long, closely tied by a string made of the hide of some animal, which string was encircled by brass or copper clasps greatly oxidized; but the hair and string were in a good state of preservation, though they must have lain there more than a century. In the meadows, logs, leaves, butternuts, and walnuts are found undecayed, 15 feet below the surface; and stumps of trees have been observed at that depth standing yet firmly where they once grew. In the same meadows, a few years since, several toads were dug up from 15 feet below the surface, and three feet in gravel. They soon recovered from a torpid state, and hopped away.

The small range of hills beginning at the south line of Deerfield, and terminating in Gill, deserves description. At its commencement on the south, a conical hill, called Sugar Loaf, of red conglomerate, rises abruptly from the plain 500 feet. The appearance of this hill, as you come from the south, is picturesque, and it is an interesting feature of the country. The range becomes higher for three miles, where, at its greatest elevation, it is 730 feet above the bed of Deerfield river. The west side of the mountain is precipitous, and in some places naked. The ascent on the other side is gentle.

Both sides of this hill are sandstone and puddingstone, frequently alternating: though these are most extensive on the west side, and as we rise the puddingstone predominates. The strata dip to the east about 10 degrees. Near the centre of this range is a ridge of greenstone, with a mural face on the west, and amorphous masses lying at the base, half way up to its summit. This ridge does not rise so high as the puddingstone on the west of it, as may be seen in the view of strata with the map. It commences on the west bank of Connecticut river, about a mile north of the hill C, and increases in elevation nearly to the spot where it disappears at the fall of the river in Gill. This rock does not appear to rest on sandstone, but to descend through it, where there is an opportunity for observation. Deerfield river has worn a passage through the sandstone and greenstone 150 feet deep, and the greenstone passes under its bed, and the sandstone, at a few rods distant lies on each side of the greenstone. A similar fact has been noticed at the fall in Connecticut river, in Gill. Yet I have coloured this greenstone secondary on the map; for it is certain that Mount Tom rests on sandstone, and it is stated by Professor Silliman, that the same rock does in Connecticut. Could we penetrate deeper below the surface, it is probable the same would be found to be the case with this greenstone.

As stated above, this rock disappears near the cataract in Gill, and it is succeeded by puddingstone. But four miles farther north, it again emerges in Bernardstone, though it rises but little above the surface. Here its character is changed. The hornblende is more crystalline, and the rock becomes decidedly primitive, as you approach a mountain of argillite and mica slate, into which it passes, and no greenstone has been observed north of this. It terminates not far from the line of Vermont. The red sandstone and conglomerate also terminate on the opposite side of the river in Northfield.

The greenstone in the above described range, is of a finer texture than the same rock in Connecticut; and the feldspar, in some specimens, is scarcely discernible with a microscope. Indeed, in many instances, the eye would decide the rock to be basalt. Much of it is fissile, the laminæ varying from half an inch to a foot in thickness. This is most perceptible among the loose masses; but it exists also in that in place. Whether this circumstance be accidental, I will not attempt to decide.

A large proportion of the greenstone of our vicinity constitutes the base of amygdaloid. The imbedded substances are calcareous spar, quartz, chalcedony, analcime, prehnite, &c. as will be more particularly mentioned hereafter. Globular concretions of greenstone are common in this amygdaloid, several inches in diameter, and of greater specific gravity than the other parts of the rock. A great number of columns occur in the same range, having from three to six sides. Some of them are quite regular, and are well articulated, exhibiting at their joints considerable concavities and convexities. They are from one to thirty feet long, and, in their natural position, incline a few degrees to the east, as may be seen in the view of strata with the map; A few have been noticed that make lateral curves. One of these hexagonal columns measures at one end as follows:—Diagonals, 27, 29, and 29½ inches; sides, 16½, 13¼, 11½, 17, 11½, and 16½ inches. The convexity of this column is a little more than an inch. The best instances of these prisms occur one mile east from the village of Deerfield.

Masses of greenstone are found at considerable distance from the range, among the puddingstone. One has been noticed weighing many tons, a hundred rods from the range of greenstone, and on much higher ground. Some of these scattered fragments contain chalcedony. A specimen of petrosiliceous porphyry has been found among the same puddingstone, and also a mass of singular, though not well defined, amygdaloid, whose base is similar to wacke, and imbedded substances are calcareous spar, chlorite, and green earth.

The elevation in the north part of Sunderland, called Toby, from 800 to 900 feet high, is chiefly conglomerate, red, brown, or greenish, which, in some parts, alternates with chlorite slate, secondary argillite, and a sandstone that seems to be passing into gray wacke slate. Some of the imbedded masses in this puddingstone are quite large, its cement is frequently calcareous, its aspect is singular, and it is very different from the puddingstone before described, On the opposite side of the river. At the foot of this mountain, in the bottom of Connecticut river, distinct impressions of fish are found on a schistose rock, like the one above mentioned as passing into gray wacke slate. This same species of slate occurs in several other places at the bottom of Connecticut river, as at the fall in Gill. In this last place bituminous shale has been noticed.

In Mount Toby, in Sunderland, is a cave nearly 150 feet above the bed of Connecticut river. It opens to the north and west, forming a quarter of a circle, is 130 feet in extent, 60 feet deep, and from 3 to 20 wide. A little to the south of it, is a fissure in the puddingstone, formed by a separation of the rock, ten feet wide, and as deep as the cave. So perfect is this division, that it appears as if cloven down by the sword of some Titan. Perhaps this cave and fissure were formed by the washing of the waters of the lake we have mentioned on the sandstone and conglomerate beneath; thus causing the superincumbent rock to fall and separate. There is no appearance of any other convulsion. Imperfect, calcareous stalactites are found in this cave.

The falls in Connecticut river, at E, are not unworthy of notice. The river here is about 40 rods wide, and the height of the main cataract, raised considerably by an artificial dam, is 30 feet. The fall continues two miles. On the north bank you view the cataract from elevated ground, and can see the river nearly a mile above and below—above, perfectly smooth and calm, below, forming a quarter of a circle, and tumbling among the broken rocks. On the opposite side of the river are a few buildings, the commencement of a canal, and, behind these, moderately elevated hills, covered with woods. Two rocky islands near the middle of the descending sheet, and another thirty rods below, add much to the beauty of the view. Looking from the southeast shore, you have a partial prospect of the falls, and a view of an amphitheatre of greenstone hills, through which a small river empties. The pleasure derived from the view proceeds more from its wildness than its sublimity.

The position of the hills, boundaries, and rivers, on the accompanying map, may not, in all cases, be precisely correct. The general outlines were enlarged by a pentegraph from Carleton's map of Massachusetts, and the intermediate objects were placed chiefly by the eye; their relative situations being determined by travelling over the ground, and viewing them from different elevations. The boundaries of the several formations have not been so carefully noticed near the angles of the map as in the central parts. Of their correctness generally, however, I am confident. The latitude and longitude of Deerfield, from which those on the map were marked, were obtained by taking a mean of the observations given by Gen. E. Hoyt, in the Transactions of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of twelve lunar observations since made. The result is, Lat. 42° 32' 32". Long. 72° 39' from Greenwich.

With the map is given a view of the strata of rocks from Hoosack mountain to eleven miles east of Connecticut river, on a line nearly east and west, passing through Deerfield. The horizontal distances are laid down from a scale: the elevations are assumed. The principal rocks only are coloured; for it is very difficult to determine the breadth of many, since they frequently alternate with one another. I have not examined the country on the east side of Connecticut river with sufficient care to be able to extend the section on that side more than a few miles.

It may not be amiss to mention, that Mount Holyoke, so much celebrated for the delightful view from its top, has been found, with a sextant, to be 830 feet above Connecticut river. Its height has been frequently overrated.

The mineralogy of this section of the country has been but imperfectly explored. I shall mention those minerals only of which I have obtained specimens, and whose localities have not been noticed by mineralogists.

Quartz—several varieties.

1. Rock Crystal—abundant. Some good specimens are found in Conway, on feldspar, with the usual hexagonal, prismatic crystals, and these crystals cross each other in all directions.

2. Irised Quartz—found in Leyden.

3. Granular Quartz—in Deerfield.

4. Radiated Quartz—in Whately and Shelburne.

5. Blue Quartz—in rolled masses on the banks of Deerfield river.

6. Greasy Quartz—in same place.

7. Pseudomorphous Quartz—in greenstone, Deerfield.

8. Lamellar Quartz—in same place. The laminæ sometimes penetrate crystals of common quartz.

9. Tubular, or Pectinated Quartz—in same place.

10. Quartz Geodes—in same place.

Prase—in the north part of Sunderland. (Not good specimens.)

Amethyst—in Greenstone, Deerfield: the colour is not deep, but delicate.

Chalcedony—in same place—considerably abundant, but generally in small masses.

Carnelian—in same place, not plenty. The chalcedony, in some specimens, seems to be passing into cacholong, and the carnelian into sardonyx.

Agate—in same place. It is made up of chalcedony, carnelian, and quartz. They are generally small, but some are elegant.

Jasper, red, and yellow—found in rolled masses on the banks of Deerfield river and in Leyden. Some have been found imperfectly striped. It occurs frequently as it was formed by the aboriginals into barbs for pikes and arrows.

Petrosilex—on the banks of Deerfield river—not good specimens.

Feldspar—the red variety occurs in puddingstone, Deerfield. It is not necessary to mention any other locality of a mineral so common.

Hornblende—very abundant—mostly black in this vicinity.

Mica—this is very abundant on the east side of Connecticut river. Some crystals of it have been found in Amherst.

Talc—in Shutesbury.

Steatite. The localities of this are seen on the section. The aboriginals formed many articles from this mineral, as pots, pipes, &c.

Chlorite—in Shutesbury: also in amygdaloid, Deerfield. In Deerfield academy there are some Indian pipes of this mineral, well wrought.

Green Earth—in small quantities, in amygdaloid, Deerfield.

Schorl—the black variety occurs in Pelham, Shutesbury, and Orange, Mass., and in Brattleborough, Vermont.

Epidote—in Deerfield, Shutesbury, Leyden, and Pelham, and in Athol, Worcester county. The specimens poor.

Tremolite—in the west part of Leyden, near Green river. The rock in this region is chiefly mica slate, and the quantity of tremolite is very great. Tons of it might be easily collected.

Cyanite, or Sappare—in Deerfield, in mica slate; discovered by Dr. S. W. Williams.

Actynolite—rare, found in Shutesbury.

Serpentine—found in Leyden in rolled masses. Some of the specimens admit a fine polish, and the ground is handsomely variegated. It has not been noticed in situ.

Asbestus—compact, in Pelham.

Garnets—very plenty in Conway, Deerfield, Shelburne, &c. Good specimens of the melanite occur in Conway.

Native Alum—in Leyden, in small quantities, efflorescing on argillaceous slate.

Sulphur—in Conway, Shelburne, and Warwick, efflorescing on mica slate.

Prehnite—in greenstone, Deerfield, encrusting the columns and in radiated masses, but rarely crystallized. The veins of it, when in place, are nearly perpendicular.

Zeolite—in same place, not abundant. Some good specimens of the radiated variety are found.

Chabasie—in same place, considerably abundant. No crystals have yet been found whose sides exceed a quarter of an inch. It occurs in the veins of the greenstone, in geodes, on balls of zeolite, on chalcedony, on lamellar quartz, &c.

Stilbite—in same place, not abundant. It is commonly associated with chabasie, and the crystals, though small, are well defined.

Analcime—in same place, very abundant, and is associated with quartz and amethyst, which are sometimes enclosed by analcime. It generally occurs in cylindrical, reniform, and radiated masses. A few perfect crystals only have been observed.

Laminated Calcareous Spar—in the same place, not uncommon.

Chalcedony, carnelian, agate, amethyst, prehnite, zeolite, chabasie, stilbite, and analcime, have been found nearly in the same place; and it may not be amiss to observe, that this spot is distant from Deerfield Academy about one mile, and bears from the same, by a true meridian, E. 2°, 15′ S.

Iron Sand—found in considerable quantity near the falls in Connecticut river, on the Montague shore.

Sulphate of Iron—in Conway, in small quantities, efflorescing on mica slate.

Sulphuret of Iron—in Halifax, Vermont, in abundance; also in Charlemont, Mass., Deerfield, &c.

Magnetic Oxide of Iron—very common in the region west of Connecticut river. I have observed it in Athol, Worcester county.

Specular Oxide of Iron—some veins of this ore occur in Hawley, Bernardstown, and Warwick, and have been wrought to a small extent.

Micaceous Oxide of Iron—in the iron mine in Hawley.

Green Carbonate of Copper—in greenstone, in Greenfield. This ore constitutes a vein on the bank of Connecticut river, passing into the hill on one side, and under the river on the other. It has never been wrought, nor, indeed, is its locality publicly known.

Copper Pyrites—in the same vein, not abundant, at the surface.

Sulphate of Barytes—in the same place, constituting the immediate walls of the vein. Its breadth on the wall varies from an inch to a foot, and the breadth of the vein is 6 or 8 feet.

Galena—in Whately. This is probably from a continuation of the vein of this ore that appears at Montgomery, Southampton, and Hatfield. A single crystal has been found in the same range, in Greenfield, twelve miles north of Whately; but it was not in place.

Red Oxyde of Titanium—in Leyden, crystallized on quartz and tremolite, chiefly on the latter; colour brownish red—specific gravity 4.232; scratches glass, handsomely geniculated, and sometimes several geniculations in the same specimen; in one as many as six could be perceived.

Eagle Stone, or Nodular argillaceous Oxide of Iron—one specimen on the banks of Deerfield river.

Rose-red Quartz—a loose mass in alluvial soil, Deerfield.

Red Oxide of Titanium—in Shelburne.

I would acknowledge my peculiar obligations to Professor Silliman, of New-Haven, and to Dr. David Hunt, of Northampton, Mass. for the very generous assistance they have given me in a commencement of the study of mineralogy, and for their liberal aid in this particular communication. Their kindness, it is believed, will not soon be forgotten. To several others, also, I am indebted for communicating facts of importance.

Deerfield, October, 1817.

Art. II. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West.

Art. II.   On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. in Letters to the Editor.

Circleville, Ohio, May 28, 1818.

Dear Sir,
I send you for publication in the Journal of Science, an Essay on the Prairies and Barrens found in this country.

Description of the Prairies.

Prairie is a French word, signifying a meadow, but is here applied only to natural meadows. They are found in all the states and territories west of the Allegany mountains, more or less numerous, of greater or less extent. They are covered with a coarse kind of grass, which, before the country is settled in their vicinity, grows to the height of six or seven feet. After these natural meadows are fed upon by domestic animals, the grass does not grow to a greater height than it does in common pastures. Sometimes this grass is intermixed with weeds and plum-bushes. Some of those prairies are dry, while others are moist. Pickaway Plains, in Pickaway county, in the State of Ohio, lying a small distance south of this place, are nearly seven miles in length, and about three miles in width, on ground considerably elevated above the Scioto river, almost perfectly level, and, in their native state, were covered with a great quantity of grass, some weeds and plum-bushes; and in the most elevated places, there were a few trees. This was one great prairie.

Sandusky Plains, lying on the high ground between the head waters of the Whetstone branch of the Scioto river, and the waters of streams running into Lake Erie, are still more extensive than those of Pickaway, covered with a coarse, tall grass, intermixed with weeds, with here and there a tree, presenting to the eye a landscape of great extent.

The moist prairies generally lie along some stream, or at the head of one, on level land, or on that which gently descends. The moist prairies are too wet for trees to grow on them; and whether moist or dry, the soil, for a greater or less depth, is always alluvial, resting on pebbles and sand, such as are found at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and lakes. In some instances, the writer is credibly informed, that the shells of muscles are found imbedded in the pebbles and sand. That these shells, such as abound in our rivers, ponds, and lakes, should be found in low prairies along the banks of waters which frequently overflow them, excites no wonder, nor even surprise; but that these shells should be found thus imbedded in pebbles and sand underneath several feet of alluvial soil, in situations more than one hundred feet above the waters of any stream now in existence, is calculated to perplex the mind of the superficial observer. These prairies are found in the western half of the State of Ohio, and north of the hills adjacent to the river of that name. They are also found in every state and territory west of the Alleganies, from the great northern lakes on the north, to the Mexican Gulf on the south; from the western foot of the Allegany mountains, to the eastern one of the Rocky mountains, up the Missouri. In summer, the grass which spontaneously covers them, feeds immense herds of cattle; in winter, the hay that is cut on them, with a little Indian corn or maize, feeds and fattens the same herds. Some of these prairies extend as far as the eye can reach; others contain only a few perches of ground.

Description of the Barrens.

But besides these prairies, there are also extensive tracts of country in this part of the Union which deserve and shall receive our notice; they are called "Barrens." From their appellation, "barrens," the person unacquainted with them is not to suppose them thus called from their sterility, because most of them are quite the reverse. These barrens are found in a level country, with here and there a gentle rise, only a few feet higher than the land around it. On these little rises, for they are not hills, trees grow, and grass also; but grass and weeds are the only occupants of the soil where there is no rise of ground. The soil is alluvial to greater or less depth in these barrens, though on some of the highest rises there is little or none; the lower the ground the deeper the alluvion. On these gentle rises, where there is no alluvion, we find stiff, blue clay, and no pebbles. Under the alluvial black soil, in the lower grounds, we find pebbles similar to those in the prairies, owing to similar causes. On the little ridges, wherever the land is not too moist, the oak or the hickory has taken possession, and there grows to a moderate height, in clusters. It would seem, that whenever the land had become sufficiently dry for an acorn or a hickory-nut to sprout, take root, and grow, it did so; and from one or more of these trees, in time, others have grown around them in such clusters as we now behold. Where the land is lower, the soil deeper, more moist and more fertile, the grass was too thick, and the soil too wet, for such kind of trees to grow in as were found in the immediate vicinity. Imagine, then, natural meadows, of various dimensions, and of every figure which the imagination can conceive, with here and there a gentle rise of ground, decked with a few scattering trees or a thick cluster of them, and bearing a tall, coarse grass, which is thin on the rises, but on the lower grounds thick and luxuriant; imagine, also, a rill of a reddish colour scarcely meandering through ground a little lower than the surrounding plain, and you will have a very correct idea of the appearance of these barrens. They are generally (not always) found on what, in our western dialect, is called second bottom, and not on a level with any streams of magnitude, but rather at their sources. To mention all the counties of this State where these prairies and barrens are found, would be too tedious, and illy comport with the object which we have in view. We shall therefore content ourselves with describing those found in the north half of Fayette county, and the adjoining county of Madison, which may be said to be almost entirely one great barren of more than forty miles extent from north to south, and generally half as much in breadth from east to west. The great barren in Fayette, Madison, and, we may add, in the counties still north of them, is on land elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the level of the Scioto river, into which the streams that have their sources in this tract of country generally run. This land lies so level that the waters stand on it too long for grain to thrive equally with grass, unless, indeed, the farmer should dig a long drain, which is easily effected by the plough, with a little assistance from the hoe and the spade. But as nature seems to have intended this tract of country for the raising of cattle instead of grain, the husbandman has listened to the suggestion, and in this great barren are found some thousands of the finest cattle which the State affords. Here the horse, the ox, and the swine feed, thrive, and fatten with little expense to their owner; but sheep do not, and never will, thrive on prairie grass, or wet grounds. Fruit-trees, the peach, the apple, the plum, &c. do very well when planted on the gently rising grounds, where the hickory or the oak had once stood. Fruit-trees, such as have been named, thrive very well also on the dry prairies. On the eastern side of the Allegany mountains there neither is, nor was there ever, any thing like these prairies and barrens, if we except those found in the western part of New-York, in the Genesee country, and in the vicinity of the lakes in that quarter. These, the writer of this saw nearly thirty years since, and before that country was much settled. Those prairies were similar in appearance to ours in the west, and were, beyond doubt, formed by similar means.

Speculations on the Origin of the Prairies and Barrens.

What were the causes which contribute to form these natural meadows? That water was the principal agent in their formation, we very little doubt; but this is not the common opinion. According to that opinion, our prairies and barrens, and especially the latter, were occasioned entirely by the burning of the woods by the Indians, in order to take the wild game. Let us try this opinion by the indubitable appearances exhibited by these prairies and barrens.

They are invariably found in a level country, or in one which is nearly so; and the soil is generally, if not always, more moist than that which is uneven and hilly. Would not the leaves, where the land is dry, burn over with as great facility, or even with greater facility, than the grass would where the land is wet? Would there not be more wild game where they could find their food in plenty, such as acorns and hickory nuts, on which they feed in winter, than on land where no food, except dry grass and weeds, were to be found? It is well known that these prairies and barrens could not be burnt over when the vegetable productions which cover them were growing. At the only season when it is possible to burn them, that is in winter, to what kind of regions do the wild animals resort? Is it not to the thick woods? Every hunter will answer in the affirmative. For the space of twenty-five years, the writer of this lived in the vicinity of Indians, and from information on which he relies, as well as from his own actual observation, he confidently avers that the Indians neither are, nor ever were, in the habit of firing the woods in order to take game. Erroneous information first propagated such an opinion, and blind credulity has extended it down to us. Another opinion, equally groundless, prevails to a considerable extent; and that is, that these prairies have all been heretofore cultivated by the aborigines, and that the grass having overspread these plains, prevented the growth of trees on them. The Indians, it is to be presumed, never cultivated any other grain than maize, or Indian corn, and yet we see few or no corn-hills in any part of this country. In the western part of New-York, before it was settled by its present inhabitants, thousands and thousands of acres were to be seen, where the trees were as large as any in the forest, and yet the rows of corn-hills were plainly discernible. I refer in a particular manner to what is now called Cayuga county. There the growth of grass had not prevented the growth of trees, nor did it here. We know that some of these prairies were cultivated by the Indians, but never to any very considerable extent. This country never was thickly settled by Indians, like the shores of the Atlantic and the banks of the rivers running into it. No, it was the ancestors of the Peruvians and the Mexicans who lived here in great numbers, before they migrated to South America.

The question then recurs, by what powerful means were these prairies and barrens formed?

That water was the principal agent, we infer from the fact, that the soil is always alluvial to greater or less depth; the former we call prairie, the latter barren. But how could the country from the southern shore of Lake Erie to Chillicothe, a distance of more than one hundred and fifty miles from north to south, ever be covered with water long enough to form alluvial soil, in many places from four to six feet in depth? I answer, that the Niagara river, the present outlet of Lake Erie, has worn away several hundred feet, and in that way the lake is lowered in the same proportion. The high land, composed entirely of sand, originally extending from the Ohio northerly upwards of forty miles, to Chillicothe, has been worn through by the Scioto river; and the waters which once for ages covered the whole country north of the hills along the Ohio river have been drained off, and the dry land appears where once stood the waters of lakes Erie and Michigan, then forming but one great lake. I am fully impressed with the belief, that were the bottom of Niagara river as high as it once was, the upper lakes would now, as formerly, empty themselves into the Ohio by the Scioto and Miami rivers, and into the Mississippi by the Illinois. I might proceed to examine every part of the country where prairies and barrens are found; but they have all been formed by the same agent, and that is water. An objection to this opinion may be raised by some, that these prairies and barrens are frequently found in the counties of Delaware, Champaign, Madison, Fayette, &c. on ground considerably elevated. Are they higher than the hills near Chillicothe? From a careful inspection, but without any instruments, I am convinced that they are none of them as high.

There is no perpendicular fall of water, but merely a gradual descent, from Columbus to the Ohio; nay, there is no fall from the very source of the Scioto to its mouth. Every one acquainted with hydrostatics, knows that water will run briskly where the descent is only a few inches in a mile. The writer believes that the Scioto, from its source to the Ohio river, does not descend more than one hundred feet, and that the present surface of Lake Erie is about on a level with the Ohio in a freshet; that before the channel of Niagara river was deepened, as it evidently has been, by the attrition of that mighty stream; and before the hills adjacent to the Ohio were worn down by the waters of the Scioto, the whole country north of Chillicothe, where these hills commence, to Lake Erie inclusive, was covered with water, except the very highest hills in the counties of Greene, &c. which were then islands. What tends to corroborate this opinion is, that on these high grounds we find limestone and other rocks, and indications of gypsum; but no alluvion, and none of those fragments and ruins which are produced by water acting mechanically upon a country for a long space of time. We might mention other parts of country where prairies and barrens abound, and which have been formed by water. Those along Greene river, in Kentucky, have evidently been covered by the waters of that river. The bed of that stream has been deepened by the constant flowing of the water along its channel; the water is drained off, and the prairies and barrens now occupy the soil which the water had made and formerly covered. The prairies above the falls of Hockhocking, along that river, have evidently been formed in the same way, and owe their origin and appearances to similar causes. There is near Lancaster, on the last-mentioned river in the State of Ohio, and near the great road, a gentle rise of ground in the prairie, which has every appearance of having been an island, and is so called by the people of the vicinity.

In fine, wherever prairies and barrens are found, there, for a long space of time, water once stood, but was gradually drained off. Else why alluvial soil to such a depth, in low situations, and growing thinner as we ascend on ground more elevated? Else why do we find rocks in more elevated tracts of country, and not in prairies or barrens? Else why do we find no alluvion, no grass, but a thick growth of ancient forest-trees on the higher lands? Else why do we find beneath the alluvion of the prairies, pebbles and shells similar to those at the bottom of lakes and ponds? Else why do the higher grounds to this moment present the appearances of so many islands? And all these indications where no stream now in existence could by possibility have reached them?

That the waters which once covered so great a part of this State (Ohio) were drawn off gradually, we infer from the fact, that there is not a single indication of the effects of an earthquake or volcano, from the foot of the Allegany to the banks of the Mississippi: in this region not a stone nor a layer of earth has been misplaced, nor its position changed.

But an interesting inquiry here presents itself. Were the hills along the Ohio, before they were worn away by the streams which now empty themselves into that river, ever high enough to raise the water to the north of them to such a degree that it would overspread the country where the prairies and barrens are now found? Although the height of these hills has not been ascertained by the proper instruments, yet from appearances, not to be mistaken by any person who examines them and the country towards Lake Erie, these hills are much higher than any land between them and that lake. And from certain indications, (as already remarked,) had not the bed of the Niagara been deepened by the running of that mighty river, Lake Erie, as formerly, would empty itself into the Ohio by the Scioto and Miami; and the great northern lakes would once more discharge themselves into the Mississippi by the Illinois. Lake Ontario, from some cause, (possibly an earthquake, or the wearing away of its outlet, or both,) is considerably lower than it was formerly: in that way the land along its banks, once covered by its waters, is drained, presenting appearances exactly similar to those seen in many of our prairies.

Miscellaneous Remarks on the Prairies and Barrens relative to their Picturesque Features, and to Agriculture and Health, as affected by the peculiarities of these Tracts.

To the traveller, who for several days traverses these prairies and barrens, their appearance is quite uninviting, and even disagreeable. He may travel from morning until night, and make good speed, but on looking around him, he fancies himself at the very spot whence he started. No pleasant variety of hill and dale, no rapidly running brook delights the eye, and no sound of woodland music strikes the ear; but, in their stead, a dull uniformity of prospect "spread out immense." Excepting here and there a tree, or a slight elevation of ground, it is otherwise a dead level, covered with tall weeds and coarse grass. The sluggish rivulets, of a reddish colour, scarcely move perceptibly, and their appearance is as uninviting to the eye, as their taste is disgusting to the palate. Such are the prairies and barrens of the west; but, in order to make ample amends for any deficiency, nature has made them exuberantly fertile. The farmer who settles upon them, by raising cattle, becomes rich with little labour. He ditches those which are too moist for grain; he ploughs and fences them, and raises from seventy to one hundred bushels of maize or Indian corn to the acre, without ever hoeing it. The United States own thousands and thousands of acres of such land in these western States and territories, which, for prompt payment, may be purchased for one dollar and sixty-two and a half cents an acre. One objection to these lands is, the want of timber for fuel and other purposes; and another is, that they are unhealthy: but in many places there is an abundance of peat in the wet prairies, and cultivation will every year render them more and more healthy. Some of them have been cultivated for fifteen or twenty years past with grain, and are as fertile as they ever were. As M. Volney says, "They are the Flanders of America."

Yours, &c. C. A.

Art. III. Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of Richmond, Virginia.

Art. III.   Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of Richmond, Virginia, communicated to the editor in a letter from Mr. John Grammer, Jun.

Petersburgh, Virg. Jan. 28th, 1818.

Dear Sir,
In compliance with your request, that I would send you some account of the Virginia coal pits, I paid a visit to them soon after my return, in company with Mr. R. W. Withers, and I will now proceed to give you the account proposed.

The pits, which we made the particular object of our visit, are situated in the county of Chesterfield, about 14 miles distant, in a direction W. S. W. from Richmond, and 3 miles south of James' River. The country rises gradually from Richmond to the pits; and, from its sandy appearance, is evidently an alluvial deposit, although its substratum is the granite mentioned by Mr. M'Clure, as extending through this state from S. S. W. to N. N. E. The coal is found on the western or upper surface of the granite, coincident with it both in direction and inclination; but whether they come immediately in contact or not, has not yet been ascertained. The 'bed' of coal is supposed by the miners to be coextensive with the granite, and I can discover no very good reason for disagreeing with them in this particular; but, on the contrary, many circumstances concur to strengthen the opinion that it is really coextensive with the granite. The coal is now procured from at least 25 different pits, opened at convenient distances through an extent of from 50 to 70 miles. It every where commences at the upper surface or termination of the body of granite. Some suppose that it is imposed on the granite; and others, that a thin stratum of slate is interposed between the coal and granite. It is always found covered by the slate. The granite is inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45°, and the coal has the same inclination. And since the coal, as far as it has been discovered, is found to accompany and correspond with the granite, why may we not suppose that it continues to accompany the granite, where it has not yet been discovered? At Heth's pits, the coal is 50 feet thick, measured on a line perpendicular to the surfaces of the extreme strata. At some of the pits between Heth's and James' River, it is 30 feet thick; and at the river, not more than 25 feet. The thickness of the coal on the north side of James' River, at the pits in Henrico and Hanover counties, is variable, but at no place greater than 25 feet; and to the south of Heth's, in the pits extending to the Appomatox river, it is still less thick. These facts would induce the supposition, that the coal was deposited in a bed, near the centre of which Heth's pits were sunk. But, on the other hand, the coal is distinctly stratified, and the number of strata increases as the coal proceeds from the surface of the earth; of course, therefore, the farther you proceed from the outer extremity of the coal, the thicker the body of it will be found; and from the inclination of the coal, the farther you are from its outer extremity the deeper it must be under the surface of the earth. Heth's pits are 100 feet deeper than any that have yet been sunk; and all the pits, that I have seen, appear to be nearer to the outer extremity of the coal. We may conclude, therefore, that if the others had been sunk as far from the outer extremity, they would have been as deep, and the coal would have been found as thick in them as in Heth's. Heth's pits, now so called, were first opened about 30 years since, and worked to some considerable extent. Experiencing, however, much inconvenience from the near approach of the works to a part of the coal which was on fire; and finding, from their unskilful mode of mining, that the business was not profitable, they abandoned the works, and filled up their shaft. Some few years after, Mr. Heth obtained possession of the land; and, having imported two Scotch miners, commenced working the coal again. He has now three shafts open, in a line with each other, in the direction of the vein. They are sunk near the brink of a steep hill, which rises about 180 feet from the western bank of a small brook. The depth of one of the shafts is 350 feet. The other two are about 300 feet deep, each. A steam-engine, constructed by Bolton & Watt, is erected at the middle and deepest shaft. It is used exclusively for pumping out water; but I will not trouble you with an account of the modus operandi, as it would be only a repetition of your own description of the same operation at the Cornwall mines. The coal is raised in a box, called by the miners a cowe. These cowes contain about two bushels each, and two of them are alternately rising and descending in each shaft. They are raised by means of ropes, fastened to a simple wheel and crank, which is turned by mules. In sinking their shafts, they cut, in the first place, perpendicularly (i. e. to the surface of the earth) through the coal, to its lower surface; and then turning westwardly, they open a horizontal gallery through the inclination of the vein, to its upper surface; by this means, to use their own terms, "gaining a double cut on it." Their principal gallery passes (in the direction of the vein,) by the mouth of each shaft. Its length is 1350 feet, and it is terminated at each end by a hitch or dyke of hard sandstone. (The passage was stopped with rubbish in such a manner as to prevent me from seeing the stone myself, and the gentleman who escorted me through the mines is my authority for its being sandstone; he might possibly, however, have been mistaken, as it is difficult to ascertain what a stone is, in such a place, until it is broken.) When I was at the pits, they were preparing to blast through this rock. At right angles to the principal gallery, they have opened, at convenient distances apart, shorter galleries, running westwardly, and these are again connected by passages parallel to the first or principal gallery. Pickaxes are the only tools used in working the coal, as it breaks very readily, in the direction of the strata. The roofs of some of the passages are perfectly smooth; and in such, the light of the lamps, reflected from the great variety of colours in the coal, presents a very brilliant sight. The gloomy blackness, however, of most of the galleries, and the strange dress and appearance of the black miners, would furnish sufficient data to the conception of a poet, for a description of Pluto's kingdom. A strong sulphurous acid ran down the walls of many of the galleries; and I observed one of the drains was filled with a yellowish gelatinous substance, which I ascertained, on a subsequent examination, was a yellow, or rather a reddish, oxide of iron, mechanically suspended in water.

I mentioned above that a part of the coal was on fire: I could not ascertain when this fact was first observed to exist; and it is not impossible that the coal may have been burning a century, or more. It is highly probable, however, that a comparatively small quantity of the coal is consumed, as the combustion must be greatly retarded by the absence of a sufficient portion of atmospheric air. A strong sulphurous fume issues from an irregular hole in the side of the hill of about 2 feet diameter. The hole appears to be only 4 or 5 feet deep, and the smoke rises into it from cracks, partly filled with loose clay. The earth is very much cracked around the hole, to the distance of 12 or 15 feet; and these cracks are from 1 to 4 inches wide. The mouth of the hole is encrusted with acicular crystals of pure sulphur. Attempts were formerly made to extinguish the fire, by turning water into this hole; and, after every attempt, there was a temporary disappearance of the smoke for several weeks; but never longer than three months. For several years, however, they have desisted from such vain attempts, and have taken advantage of the facility afforded, by the existence of this fire, for ventilating the mines, in the following manner:—They opened a passage from their present, to the old deserted, works; this they can open or shut, by means of a close door. As the old works are very near the fire, the air in them becomes very much rarified by the heat; and probably a considerable portion of it is consumed (as the principal pabulum for the combustion,) and a partial vacuum is produced. When the air in their present works, therefore, becomes impure, they open the door, and a strong current rushes into the old works; its place is again supplied with fresh air through the shafts. Previous to the adoption of this mode of ventilation, they experienced great inconvenience from carbonic acid gas; and some of the workmen had been killed by an explosion of carburetted hydrogen gas. Since this mode has been adopted, they have experienced no inconvenience at all from noxious gases. On inquiry, I was told that the substances passed through, in getting to the coal, varied in the different pits. As far, however, as I could learn by inquiry, and an examination of the heaps of rubbish, the following substances, in the order in which they stand, have been found in Heth's pits:—mould, clay, gravel, fuller's earth, sandstone, (at first extremely coarse and friable, but becoming more compact and hard, and having an appearance somewhat stratified as they descended,) gray and bluish clay slate, hard bluish sandstone, shale, or, as they term it, shiver, white micaceous sandstone, extremely hard; blue slate and shale intermixed, black slate, and then the coal. The depth of these strata differed so much in different pits, that their individual thickness could not be ascertained. Vegetable impressions are very common in the slate next the coal; and they have found the impression of a fish. Pieces of pure charcoal, in the form of sticks, or logs, are frequently found in or on the coal. In sinking one of the pits they met with a perpendicular column, 8 inches in diameter, extending through the slate into the coal; in all about 50 feet. Its surface was distinctly serrated, and at intervals of about 2 inches it appeared jointed, breaking easily at the joints. For the want of a better name I must call it a "lusus naturæ;" for it is neither clay-slate nor mica-slate, nor shale, nor sandstone; but appears to be composed of them all. Masses of a black oxide of iron are sometimes found in the slate; and from its weight and hardness the miners very properly call it ironstone. Iron pyrites are very abundant in the slate, and the heaps of rubbish are white with the sulphate of alumine; yellow ochre is found among the rubbish, but I could not ascertain its relative position with any precision. The side of the hill at the pits is covered with quartz pebbles; some of which are as transparent and beautiful as I ever saw. The country, for several miles around the pits, (i. e. as far as I have seen,) appears to be entirely destitute of rocks or pebbles, and is covered with a light sandy soil. I am unable to inform you of the number of hands employed at, or of the quantity of coal annually furnished from, these pits, as a part of my notes has, by an accident, been rendered illegible.

Thus, sir, I have endeavoured to comply with my promise of giving you an account of the coal pits.[17] In doing this, I have only attempted to state facts as they existed; although I have no doubt that my imperfect acquaintance with geology has occasioned many omissions which might have been interesting. To the same cause must be attributed the use of language not always strictly scientific, and a method less exact than might have been desired. With all its imperfections, however, if you can, from the mass of facts, cull any one which may be useful or interesting, I shall be fully compensated by the pleasure of having furnished it, for any trouble I may have been at in doing so. And, if at any time I should be able to furnish you with any information relative to the mineralogy or geology of this part of the country, I hope you will let me know it.

Art. IV. Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a part of the State of Indiana.

Art. IV.   Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a part of the State of Indiana, communicated in a letter to the Editor, by Mr. W. B. Stilson.

Louisville, (Ken.) August 11, 1818.

Dear Sir,
I have employed a short period of leisure in passing over a portion of the state of Indiana. Among other objects, I was not wholly inattentive to the mineralogical and geological features of the country. I now, with diffidence, transmit to you the result of my inquiries.

Sketch, &c.

The secondary formation of the state of Indiana is abundantly evident. The surface of the soil is undulating, and marked with few elevations which deserve the name of mountains. The rocks are sandstone, limestone, and clay-slate; all of which are disposed in horizontal strata. The sandstone presents nothing remarkable in its appearance. Its colours are various shades of gray and brown. The principal hills are of this formation. The principal colours of the limestone are blue and gray, and their various mingled and intermediate shades. Its secondary formation is very manifest from its almost earthy appearance. In innumerable instances, the limestone rocks contain immense quantities of imbedded shells, of great similarity in form and appearance, and having considerable resemblance, to the common escallop-shell of the ocean. Owing to the easy decomposition of these rocks, and the horizontal position of their strata, they afford many subterranean passages for water. A considerable stream, called Lost River, runs into a cave in the side of a precipitous hill; and, after a passage of 6 or 7 miles under the earth, again makes its appearance, with a large accession to its waters. The traveller's attention is continually excited by cavities in the earth, where the temporary rivulets, proceeding from rains, make a sudden exit through perpendicular perforations in the upper stratum of the rock. There are many such cavities, which do not receive any water from the surface. Some of them are many yards in diameter, forming a regular circular concave, of considerable depth towards the centre. They are vulgarly known among the inhabitants by the name of "sink-holes." The localities of slate are few, and present nothing uncommon.

With regard to the particular minerals. On Sand Creek, 60 miles from White River, is an interesting locality of that variety of silex, commonly called burrstone. It has been examined by several practical millers, who do not hesitate to pronounce the specimens which it affords, equal, if not superior, to the French burrs. The locality is twenty acres in extent, and appears to be inexhaustible. The mineral varies very much in its appearance; it is generally porous, and appears to have been puffed up by the escape of some gas, while it was in a state of fusion. A mass of well-raised bread gives no inadequate idea of its configuration. It produces most vivid sparks with steel. Some labourers are employed in procuring millstones from this place; and, such is the size of the siliceous rocks, that they are under no necessity of constructing them of detached masses. They form, of a single rock, millstones of five and a half feet in diameter, which are not defaced by any irregularity, or even earthy cavity. These millstones may be carried down the White, Wabash, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers, to New-Orleans, with great facility. And if they should prove as excellent as it is expected they will, this discovery will shed new lustre upon the accumulating evidence of the mineralogical resources of this republic.

Many other varieties of silex are common: rock crystal, agate, and chalcedony, are often found in the beds of rivulets. I passed a considerable distance upon the banks of a small stream, called Leather-wood creek: the bottom of the creek was covered, the whole distance, with siliceous masses, shaped like oblate spheroids, and of every size, from that of a large melon downwards. On being broken, they presented beautiful geodes of crystallized quartz, amethyst, &c. The outside was often fine chalcedony, and sometimes the interior was the same substance, in the form of balls; all these were sometimes combined, forming agates of great beauty.

Carbonate of lime, crystallized, is sometimes found; and many of the caves afford fine stalactites.

There is a large cave near Corydon, celebrated for the production of sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts. It has been explored for the distance of several miles. When it was first discovered, the bottom, in many places, was covered to the depth of several inches, with pure, brilliant, needle-shaped crystals of sulphate of magnesia. By some mysterious process of nature, or rather of Divine benevolence, the production of this useful salt is continually going on. This cave also produces some other salts in small quantities: nitrate of lime, nitrate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, &c.

Where the basis of the country is limestone, the waters always take up a great quantity of lime, and some of them possess great petrifying powers. I saw many specimens of petrifactions: a tuft of moss, the form perfectly preserved; leaves, bark, and branches of trees; insects, and many others.

Many of the springs are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and some of them are saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. I found the opinion universally prevalent among the people of this state, that the first appearance of these sulphur springs was immediately subsequent to the earthquakes of 1812. They say, that then new springs, impregnated with sulphur, broke out, and the waters of some old springs, for the first time, gave indications of this mineral. A sensible farmer, who has a large sulphur-fountain, boiling up from the bottom of a river near its bank, assured me, that there was no trace of this spring until after the period to which I have alluded. He could have no interest in deceiving me; and if he did deceive me, his conduct could originate only in that love of the marvellous which is so characteristic of the human mind. He moreover assured me that the "water had been growing weaker, (to use his phrase) ever since its first appearance." I have room only to mention, among the minerals of Indiana, many varieties of clay, ochres, gypsum, alabaster, muriat of soda, (very common,) iron ore, and antimony.

Art. V. New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, Stilbite, Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c.

Art. V.   New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, Stilbite, Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c.

Deerfield, &c. In the account of the Mineralogy and Geology of Deerfield, by Mr. Hitchcock, in the present Number, it will be seen, that these interesting minerals (with the exception of titanium) exist in the secondary greenstone of that place. We have specimens, (through the kindness of Mr. Hitchcock,) and observe that the agates, chalcedony, analcime, and prehnite, are imbedded in the trap; the agates are in some instances very delicate in the disposition of their bands, and need nothing but polishing to make them beautiful; the same is true of the chalcedony. The chabasie and stilbite occupy cavities, and the chabasie is often distinctly crystalized in a rhomboid, so nearly approaching a cube, in the quantity of its angles, that the mistake is easily committed of supposing them to be cubes; the crystals are sometimes transparent, and the largest a quarter of an inch in diameter. Titanium is found in Leyden; it is the red oxide—very well characterized—in reddish brown crystals as large as a common goose quill,[18] and, in some instances, perfectly geniculated. It is rare to see finer specimens.

East-Haven. It will be observed, that the great ranges of secondary greenstone, which cut Connecticut and Massachusetts in two, terminate at New-Haven, on the one hand, and some way above Deerfield on the other. By comparing the account of the termination at New-Haven (Bruce's Journal, v. i. p. 139.) with that now published, of the termination at or near Deerfield, it will be seen that the geology and imbedded minerals are very similar. At East-Haven, (one of the branches of the greenstone of New-Haven, and within from three to four miles of the latter town,) chalcedony is often found, sometimes imbedded in the trap, (but perhaps more frequently loose among the fallen stones,) which, although in small pieces, is as perfect in its characters as the chalcedony of the Feroe Islands. It is of a delicate gray, translucent, mamillary, botryoidal, stalactitical, or impressed by crystals of quartz, which have usually fallen out; sometimes these crystals incrust the chalcedony.

Agates also are found in considerable numbers, both imbedded and loose. They usually consist of bands of chalcedony and quartz, and sometimes of the latter only, variously striped or spotted, or interlaced with jasper, carnelian, and cacholong.

The form of the imbedded agates at East-Haven is commonly ovoidal, or egg-shaped, and frequently it is conical. Some portions of pure chalcedony occur, which are shaped like a long, slender carrot or parsnip, and the situation of the latter in the ground would exactly represent that of the chalcedony or agate in the rock.

The imbedded masses are frequently altogether quartz, and then they are most commonly geodes or hollow balls lined with crystals, commonly very perfect and brilliant, although rarely large. These crystals are commonly transparent and colourless—but they exhibit also most of the varieties of colour which quartz assumes—the amethyst—the smoky—yellow, &c., and occasionally they are tipped and spotted with red jasper.

The spontaneous decay of these trap rocks causes many specimens to be found among their ruins, and many more are imbedded in the solid rock; but the industry of successive classes from the neighbouring college, issuing from Col. Gibbs's cabinet, has now made specimens more scarce.

Woodbury. Twenty-four miles from New-Haven, N.W.

In a geological sketch of parts of the counties of New-Haven and Litchfield, which may appear in a future Number, it will be seen that prehnite, stilbite, and agate are found at Woodbury, in the little basin of secondary greenstone which exists there; the prehnite is abundant—it is not known whether the agates are so, although it is asserted to be the fact; the stilbite was not observed to be abundant, although it was well characterized.

Art. VI. Account of the Strata perforated by, and of the Minerals found in, the great adit to the Southampton Lead Mine.

Art. VI.   Account of the Strata perforated by, and of the Minerals found in, the great adit to the Southampton Lead Mine. Communicated to the Editor by Mr. Amos Eaton, Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &c.

To Professor Silliman.

After a laborious geological excursion along M'Clure's Springfield section, for about one hundred miles, I visited Dr. D. Hunt, at Northampton. He observed that you had expressed an opinion, that an attentive examination of all the strata constituting the walls of the artificial avenue or drift at the Southampton mines, would bring facts to knowledge, which might, in some degree, subserve the cause of geological science. I am now at the mouth of the drift, having just completed the labour which you had marked out.

I employed two miners to commence with me, at the termination of the drift, which is now extended 800 feet into the hill. We broke off large specimens, at very short intervals, throughout the whole extent of the drift. We arrived at its mouth with almost a boat load of specimens. I kept a memorandum of every thing which occurred, while under ground; and I have now arranged the specimens, before the mouth of the drift, in the same order in which they were situated in the earth.

Fatigued as I am, I will make my remarks here, in the field, lest something should hereafter escape me, which is now fresh in my recollection. Beginning with the greatest distance to which the miners have penetrated, I will set down my remarks, in fact, in reversed order.

800 feet. The rock is fine-grained gray granite, traversed by veins, lined with quartz crystals, and mostly filled with calcareous spar, often beautifully crystallized. In the same veins blue and purple fluate of lime and copper pyrites frequently occur.

790 feet. The same fine-grained granite is continued, occasionally traversed by veins lined with crystals of quartz; but containing no other minerals.

774 feet. A narrow vein of sulphuret of lead, with walls lined with crystals of quartz. The fairest cubic crystals are slightly attached to the points of the quartz crystals. Yellowish crystals of carbonate of lime are often interspersed among the lead. Sulphate of barytes occurs here also; sometimes in plates meeting at various angles, and forming chambers lined with minute crystals of quartz. Minute crystals of copper pyrites and a little fluate of lime have been found here; also fine specimens of bitter spar. The walls are very compact, fine-grained granite.

760 feet. Coarse, parti-coloured granite. The felspar is flesh-coloured and white; the quartz often bluish or greenish; the mica silvery, greenish, or purplish.

725 feet. A stratum of gray-wacke slate. Texture less firm than of the same rock at the west of Pittsfield. This stratum is very distinct, and about two feet thick.

723 feet. A stratum of serpentine rock, containing very red quartz imbedded in various directions. It is very compact, and mostly green. Here it is but about three feet thick. About ten miles south of this place, on Maclure's Springfield section, near the line between Westfield and Russel, and four miles west from Westfield Academy, I found this same stratum of very great breadth. I say the same stratum, because it is situated in the granitic hill, east of the highest ridge of granite, which is evidently a continuation of this range. Perhaps I may, hereafter, give you an account of my excursion along that section of Maclure, in which I may give you a more particular description of the Westfield serpentine.

720 feet. Coarse granite, with white and flesh-coloured felspar, black and silvery mica.

700 feet. A stratum of red mica slate, about four feet thick.

694 feet. Coarse, flesh-coloured granite. This is the handsomest granite in the whole drift. Here we find the most beautiful specimens of graphic granite, both flesh-coloured and gray.

680 feet. A stratum of Kirwan's stell-stein. That is, an aggregate of fine-grained quartz and mica, without any felspar. The quartz is mostly greenish, probably coloured by the next stratum.

670 feet. Beautiful green soapstone. Very compact, but rather softer than that kind in common use for inkstands.

666 feet. A green, granular aggregate. It seems to be made up of fine fragments of quartz, soapstone, and mica, rarely a little felspar, slightly compacted together.

Remark. All the strata, from the inner termination of the drift to this place, a distance of one hundred and thirty-four feet, are nearly vertical, or a very little inclined. Here they begin to approach a horizontal position.

The green aggregate continues as far as the air-well, a distance of 66 feet, with some trifling variations in the size and proportions of the aggregated fragments.

500 feet. A granulated, schistose aggregate, chiefly of quartz and mica. Though the constituents and the form of the rock correspond very nearly with mica slate, it cannot be considered as the primitive mica slate rock. It is so slightly compacted that it can scarcely be kept from falling to pieces. Its position is nearly horizontal.

480 feet. A stratum of coal, half an inch thick. This stratum may be traced, at different intervals, one hundred and eighty feet along the drift towards its mouth. It lies between the strata of the last described schistose aggregate.

400 feet. An aggregate appears, alternating with the loose schistose rock, which resembles the red sandstone, but is of a less firm texture.

From this place all the strata, east of the soapstone, occasionally appear, for the distance of about three hundred feet. This is probably on account of their undulatory forms and horizontal position. Most of the way we find the lower part of the walls to consist of a kind of semi-indurated puddingstone. Sometimes a thin stratum of fine, loose sand occurs. At 300 feet the coal stratum disappears, passing below the bottom of the drift.

The last hundred feet is chiefly gravel, which is now supported by timbers.

Southampton, Aug. 26, 1818.

Art. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County.

Art. VII.   On the Peat of Dutchess County—read before the Lyceum of Natural History, in New-York, by the Rev. F. C. Schaeffer, of New-York, and by him communicated to the Editor.

In May, 1817, I brought specimens of marl and peat from Dutchess county, which were taken from a fen or bog occupying an area of some acres. These fens occur frequently in the towns of Rhinebeck, Northeast, Clinton, &c. in Dutchess county. During a part of the year they are covered with water.

A pit was dug in the bog from which I procured the specimens. The order and depth of the well-defined strata which were exhibited by this excavation, I noted in my memorandum book, from which I extract the following:

After clearing away the fresh sod and recent vegetable mould, there appeared,

1. A stratum or bed of peat commonly called turf, varying in depth from three to four feet.

2. A stratum of peat and marl commingled; depth two feet.

3. A stratum of pure marl, from two to three feet. Below these there was an appearance of sand and blue clay.

The first, or upper stratum, consists of compact peat. This substance, when first taken up, is of a dark brown colour, soft, and rather viscid. Some vegetable fibres and vacuous seeds are distributed throughout the mass. It may be moulded to any convenient form. When perfectly dry, the texture of this variety, of which there is a specimen before you, acquires a high degree of solidity. Its fracture is earthy; the colour is lighter.

I should not have offered more on this subject than the labelled specimen, had I not made a most satisfactory experiment with this kind of fuel, which may be obtained in great abundance in our own State. It is easily kindled; burns with a bright flame; yields a bluish smoke, and produces an odour similar to that which attends the combustion of gramineous substances. But this is momentary. When thoroughly kindled, it burns with less flame, yields a small proportion of blackish smoke, and sulphurous acid gas is evolved, though I cannot discover any pyrites. It burns for a long time, and emits a great body of heat. It leaves a very small proportion of light, grayish white ashes; on which I have as yet made no experiments, having this day, for the first time, paid particular attention to this substance, attracted by the unusual hardness which it acquired since it is in my possession: and not many hours have elapsed since I subjected it to combustion. The attempt succeeded so well, that I cannot refrain from expressing my opinion, that this variety of peat will answer as an excellent substitute for the best Liverpool coal.

Art. VIII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies.

Art. VIII.   Notices of Geology in the West-Indies.

REMARKS.

In the former Number of this work, a notice was published respecting siliceous petrifactions of wood, from Antigua. We now publish a geological sketch of the island, with notices of some other parts of the West Indies. This communication is made by a friend, with permission to publish it. It is a production of the pen of Dr. Nugent, of St. Johns, Antigua, a gentleman of eminent scientific acquirements, who, it is hoped, will continue his laudable and able efforts to illustrate the natural history of the West-Indies.

Memorandum concerning the Geology of Antigua, &c.

The southern and more mountainous part of the island consists of trap rocks; more particularly of trap breccia and wacké-porphyry. On these beds rests a series of very peculiar stratified conglomerate rocks. These strata vary exceedingly in colour and thickness, but all dip, at a considerable angle, to the northwest. The more usual character of this rock, is that of a clayey basis, with minute particles of felspar, and small spots of grünerde[19] (or chlorite Baldogée.) This latter is frequently diffused over the whole, and gives it a green tinge: the colour has been thought by some to proceed from the impregnation of copper, but I am rather of opinion that is owing to manganese and iron. The conglomerate character of this rock, is derived from its having imbedded in it, or incorporated with it, numerous fragments, of all sizes, of petrified wood, chert, with and without coralline impressions, agate, jasper, amygdaloid, greenstone, hornstone, porphyry, porphyry slate, and other substances.

On this singular class of strata, reposes an extensive calcareous formation, occupying the northern and eastern part of the island, having subordinate to it, and at its lowest part, where it is in contact with the conglomerate, large beds and patches of chert, which contains also a vast variety of petrified woods, several of which are of the palm tribe, with silicified shells, chiefly cerithea; though at the Church-hill, at St. Johns, formed of this chert, casts of bivalve and ramose madrepores are likewise found. The calcareous beds are principally of a friable marl, with blocks and layers of limestone irregularly included. In this formation[20] are many fossil shells, both in the calcareous and siliceous state; and there appear to be some beds, wherein is a mixture of shells of marine, and others of a fresh water, or at least a terrestrial origin. The coralline agates found in nodules and patches therein, and which may readily be distinguished from the coralline chert of the previous beds, are the most beautiful which have any where been yet noticed; and when well selected and polished, make very pleasing ornaments.

The island, as well as Barbuda, thirty miles to the northward, the Grande Terre part of Guadaloupe, at a similar distance to the southward and eastward, with several others of the West-India Islands, give proof of an extensive formation, more recent than those to which naturalists have heretofore principally confined their' attention; and which is, perhaps, contemporaneous with, if not later than, the Paris Basin, so well described by Cuvier and Brongniart.

April 10th, 1818. N. N.

N. B.   A few specimens are sent.

REMARKS.

If the above paper be read attentively, in connexion with that in No. 1. on the petrified wood of Antigua, it will afford some very curious information to the geologist respecting these petrifactions, and must lead to interesting speculations respecting their origin, under circumstances so very peculiar, and to which we do not recollect to have heard of any parallel.

Art. IX. Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia on Staten-Island.

Art. IX.   Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia on Staten-Island, with a Notice of the Geology and Mineralogy of that Island, by James Pierce, Esq. of New-York, in a Letter to the Editor.

New-York, October 19, 1818.

Dear Sir,
I forward you a few mineral specimens characteristic of Staten-Island, including native carbonate of magnesia, in acicular crystals. I discovered this new form and locality of magnesia in examining the strata exhibited in an excavation now making, under the delusive expectation of finding gold, about three miles from the Quarantine. In descending the shaft, sunk perpendicularly in steatite, magnesite, veins of talc, and green translucent asbestus were observed at depths from six to thirty-five feet. The magnesite was found to embrace veins and cavities containing native carbonate of magnesia, in very white acicular crystals, grouped in minute fibres radiating from the sides, but not always filling the veins and cavities. The crystals were, in some instances, suspended, assuming a stalactical form. This carbonate of magnesia dissolves entirely in diluted sulphuric acid, with considerable effervescence and chemical action, producing a bitter compound, from which salts of easy solution are formed by evaporation. The magnesite in which these crystals are found, appears to be composed of carbonate of magnesia, steatite, and talc, disintegrating readily upon exposure to air and moisture: it effervesces considerably in sulphuric acid, forming a very bitter fluid that soon exhibits crystals, indicating that magnesia enters in large proportion into its constitution. Magnesite may perhaps be found at this place in quantity sufficient for a successful manufacture of Epsom salts. Small regular hexaedral crystals of mica, were noticed in steatite. Chromate of iron was sparingly diffused through the different minerals raised from various depths.

A few remarks and facts respecting the geology and mineralogy of Staten-Island, may, perhaps, give some additional interest to the specimens presented.

Staten-Island (which constitutes Richmond county) is situated about seven miles southwest of the city of New-York, extends from northeast to southwest about fifteen miles, in a straight line, with an average width of six. It exhibits a considerable diversity of surface. The eastern part is composed principally of elevated ground: a mountain chain is observed to take its rise in the vicinity of a narrow sound called the Kills, and sweep, in a semicircular form, near the eastern shore; it then ranges southwest, parallel with, and distant from Amboy Bay, about two miles, terminating near the centre of the island, and forming, with the exception of some passages, a continued chain, which, on the eastern and southern sides, is very steep, but not precipitous; it gradually declines to the west and north, and, in some places, it presents on its summit table land of considerable extent. A prominent ridge crosses the island, connecting the elevated ground of the south, with the hills of the northern part. A species of steatite, containing veins of common, indurated, and scaly talc, amianthus, and most of the varieties of asbestus, and some chromate of iron, constitutes the nucleus of the whole mountain range and elevated ground of the eastern division, stamping it as primitive. This steatite approaches, in most places, within a foot and a half of the surface, and appears in small angular loose blocks, wherever the soil has been removed. Its colour is a greenish yellow; it is brittle, very adhesive to the tongue, but little unctuous, and probably contains more alumine and less magnesia than steatites in general. Much of it decomposes when exposed to air and moisture, and forms a good mould, whenever the descent of ground permits an accumulation of earth. It is not improbable, that in most places of the Staten-Island hills, when magnesia constitutes a considerable ingredient of the rock, it will be found saturated with carbonic acid, obviating the objection to common magnesian minerals in agriculture.

The minerals observed on the surface of the northeast part of this chain of hills are, secondary greenstone, asbestoid, sandstone, granite, and gneiss, sparingly scattered in rolled masses. In addition to these rocks, in the middle and western part of the chain, a mineral of uncommon appearance is observed. It is composed principally of quartz, rough, with numerous cells of various forms, in which small siliceous crystals are generally found: the veins or plates of quartz that intersect each other, often embrace talc and oxide of iron, which, decomposing, gives some specimens the appearance of volcanic origin. Associated with this cellular ferruginous quartz, brown hæmatite is often observed; this valuable ore often yields eighty per cent. of iron of best quality; its fibres assume a variety of shapes; they were observed at Staten-Island, straight and curved, radiating from a centre, and exhibiting the stalactical, cylindrical, and botryoidal forms, often displaying a black polished surface and glistening lustre. Ferruginous minerals are abundant on the mountain for several miles. A granular oxide, called by miners shot-ore,[21] from its being principally composed of spherical grains of various sizes, was often noticed, and appears in some places in extensive beds: it is easily fused, and affords a large per centage of good iron for castings. A heavy ore, with a smooth surface and some lustre, bearing a considerable resemblance to native iron, is sometimes seen. Banks of white sand, resembling the siliceous particles of the seashore, are noticed on the mountain tops, containing masses of compact, heavy ferruginous sandstone, similar to the rocks of our alluvial seaboard. Large beds of water-worn siliceous pebbles, in no way differing from those washed by the ocean, are seen on the height of the ridge, in which excavations have been made several feet, leaving the depth of the mass uncertain. On some of the eminences, for a considerable extent, vegetation is entirely excluded by an iron-bound soil. Iron ore, imbedded in an earth coloured by, and partly composed of, oxide of iron, occupies the surface; and chalcedony and radiated quartz are sometimes observed on the primitive ridge. Prospects from many of these eminences are extensive and diversified. On one side, the ocean and a great extent of coast are in view; on the other, a rich landscape of hills and plains, the eye resting on the highland-chain and the mountains bordering Pennsylvania; the harbour, at your feet, presents a busy, ever-varying scene, and the city of New-York appears to great advantage from this point of observation.

The district between the mountain and the narrows, the thickly settled and well-cultivated plain bordering Amboy bay, and much of the western division of the island, are decidedly alluvial. Adjacent to Fort Tompkins, detached pieces of copper ore have been found. I have observed petrifactions of marine shells in rocks excavated in that neighbourhood, twenty feet from the surface, and sixty above the ocean.

The western part of the island presents moderate elevations; the soil, a good medium of sand and clay, is in general fertile; but a tract near the termination is sandy and barren. Some creeks penetrate to near the centre of the island, and are bordered by extensive salt meadows. Except at the primitive range, I have observed in no part of the island large beds of rock that can be called in place; but rolled masses of greenstone, sandstone, gneiss, granite, red jasper, and indurated clay, appear in general sparingly, but sometimes in abundance, on the surface. Lignite has been found in small quantities in the western part of the island. A chalybeate spring, of no great strength, is the only mineral water met with in Richmond county. The ponds, wells, and streams, contain a soft water, holding no lime in solution.

REMARKS.

We have already published (p. 54.) Mr. Pierce's discovery of the pulverulent carbonate of magnesia, and have pointed out its connexion with Dr. Bruce's previous discovery of the hydrate of magnesia, or pure magnesia combined with water only. Mr. Pierce has now added another important link to this chain, and future mineralogists may quote the vicinity of New-York as affording,

1. Pure magnesia, crystallized and combined with water only.

2. Carbonate of magnesia, pulverulent and white.

3. Carbonate of magnesia, in very delicate and perfectly white acicular crystals.

We possess specimens of them all.

Art. X. On a curious substance which accompanies the native Nitre of Kentucky and of Africa.

Art. X.   On a curious substance which accompanies the native Nitre of Kentucky and of Africa. Communicated in a letter to the Editor, from Samuel Brown, M. D. late of Kentucky, now of the Alabama Territory.

REMARKS.

The scientific public were several years ago laid under obligations to Dr. Brown, for a very interesting and instructive account of the nitre caverns, &c. of Kentucky, published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society, in Philadelphia, Vol. VI., and in Bruce's Journal, Vol. I. p. 100. The following communication arose from a conversation on that subject between Dr. Brown and the Editor.

New-Haven, July 27, 1818.

Dear Sir,

I have just found the passage I referred to the other day, relative to the existence of native or sandrock nitre in the interior of Southern Africa. It is in Barrow, and not in Vaillant, as I thought when I had the pleasure of conversing with you concerning it. I am much obliged to you for recalling my attention to that curious subject, as it has brought to my recollection a fact, which I believe I omitted to mention in my memoir, (viz.) the existence of a black substance in the clay under the rocks, of a bituminous appearance and smell. This I remember to have seen in a rock-house, near the Kentucky river, where very considerable quantities of sandrock nitre had been obtained. This substance was found in masses of a few ounces weight, and in the crevices of the rocks near the basis of the side walls. The smell was not wholly bituminous, but resembled that of bitumen combined with musk. I am quite unable to account for the formation of the nitre, or the production of this black substance which sometimes accompanies it, both in Africa and America. Had I seen Mr. Barrow's travels, when I noticed the bitumen, I should certainly have paid more attention to it. But perceiving no relation between the rock nitre and the masses of this substance, my examination of it was much too superficial. I do not very well understand what Mr. Barrow means by saying, that many wagon loads of animal matter lay on the roof of the caverns in Africa. I saw no such matter on the roof of the rock-houses in Kentucky. Certainly the caverns have been the habitations of wild beasts, and great quantities of leaves, &c. have been mixed with the debris of the superincumbent rocks, but it does not seem probable, that much animal matter could be filtrated through a roof of rock, perhaps forty or fifty feet in thickness. The subject, however, is very curious, and deserves much more attention than any of us have bestowed upon it.

Extract from Barrow's Southern Africa, p. 291. New-York edition.

"About 12 miles to the eastward of the wells, (Hepatic wells,) in a kloof of the mountain, we found a considerable quantity of native nitre. It was in a cavern similar to those used by the Bosgesmans for their winter habitations, and in which they used to make the drawings above mentioned. The under surface of the projecting stratum of calcareous stone, and the sides that supported it, were incrusted with a coating of clear, white saltpetre, that came off in flakes, from a quarter of an inch to an inch or more in thickness. The fracture resembled that of refined sugar, it burnt completely away without leaving any residuum; and if dissolved in water, and thus evaporated, crystals of pure prismatic nitre were obtained. This salt, in the same state, is to be met with under the sandstone strata of many of the mountains of Africa; but, perhaps, not in sufficient quantities to be employed as an article of export. There was also in the same cave, running down the sides of the rock, a black substance, that was apparently bituminous. The peasants called it the urine of the das. The dung of this gregarious animal was lying upon the roof of the cavern to the amount of many wagon loads. The putrid animal matter, filtrating through the rock, contributed, no doubt, to the formation of the nitre. The Hepatic wells and the native nitre rocks were in the division of Agster Sneuwberg, which joins the Tacka to the southwest."

Should I ever visit Kentucky again, I hope that I shall be able to give a better account of these caverns, which certainly are highly deserving of the attention of naturalists.

In Philadelphia you may have an opportunity of seeing some small specimens of the sandrock, containing nitre, now in the cabinet of the Philosophical Society.