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HENLEY’S TWENTIETH CENTURY RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES

CON­TAIN­ING TEN THOUS­AND SE­LEC­TED HOUSE­HOLD AND WORK­SHOP FORM­U­LAS, REC­I­PES, PRO­CES­SES AND MON­EY-SAV­ING METH­ODS FOR THE PRAC­TI­CAL USE OF MAN­U­FACT­UR­ERS, MECH­AN­ICS, HOUSE­KEEP­ERS AND HOME WORK­ERS

EDITED BY

GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E.

AUTHOR OF “MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES,” “COMPRESSED AIR,” “GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES,” ETC., ETC.

1914 EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

NEW YORK

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

132 NASSAU STREET

1914

COPYRIGHT, 1914 AND 1913, BY

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1912 AND 1907, BY

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

Also, Entered at Stationers’ Hall Court, London, England

All rights reserved

THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK

PREFACE

In compiling this book of formulas, recipes and processes, the Editor has endeavored to meet the practical requirements of the home and workshop—the mechanic, the manufacturer, the artisan, the housewife, and the general home worker.

In addition to exercising the utmost care in selecting his materials from competent sources, the Editor has also modified formulas which were obviously ill adapted for his needs, but were valuable if altered. Processes of questionable merit he has discarded. By adhering to this plan the Editor trusts that he has succeeded in preparing a repository of useful knowledge representing the experience of experts in every branch of practical achievement. Much of the matter has been specially translated for this work from foreign technological periodicals and books. In this way the Editor has embodied much practical information otherwise inaccessible to most English-speaking people.

Each recipe is to be regarded as a basis of experiment, to be modified to suit the particular purpose in hand, or the peculiar conditions which may affect the experimenter. Chemicals are not always of uniform relative purity and strength; heat or cold may markedly influence the result obtained, and lack of skill in the handling of utensils and instruments may sometimes cause failure. Inasmuch as a particular formula may not always be applicable, the Editor has thought it advisable to give as many recipes as his space would allow under each heading. In some instances a series of formulas is given which apparently differ but slightly in their ingredients. This has been done on the principle that one or more may be chosen for the purpose in hand.

Recognizing the fact that works of a similar character are not unknown, the Editor has endeavored to present in these pages the most modern methods and formulas. Naturally, old recipes and so-called trade secrets which have proven their value by long use are also included, particularly where no noteworthy advance has been made; but the primary aim has been to modernize and bring the entire work up to the present date.

THE EDITOR.

JANUARY, 1914.

• PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED

  • Apothecary, The.
  • Berliner Drog. Zeitung.
  • Brass World.
  • British Journal of Photography.
  • Chemical News.
  • Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium.
  • Chemisch Technische Fabrikant.
  • Chemische Zeitung.
  • Chemist-Druggist.
  • Comptes Rendus.
  • Cooley’s Receipts.
  • Cosmos.
  • Dekorationsmaler, Der.
  • Deutsche Drog. Zeitung.
  • Deutsche Goldschmiede Zeitung.
  • Deutsche Handwerk.
  • Deutsche Maler Zeitung.
  • Deutsche Topfer und Ziefler Zeitung.
  • Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal.
  • Drogisten Zeitung.
  • Druggists’ Circular.
  • English Mechanic.
  • Farben Zeitung.
  • Gummi Zeitung.
  • Journal der Goldschmiedekunst.
  • Journal of Applied Microscopy.
  • Journal of the Franklin Institute.
  • Journal Society of Chemical Industry.
  • Journal Suisse d’Horlogerie.
  • Keramische Rundschau.
  • La Nature.
  • La Science en Famille.
  • La Vie Scientifique.
  • Lack und Farben Industrie.
  • Legierungen.
  • Le Genie Civil.
  • Le Praticien.
  • Leipziger Farber und Zeugdrucker Zeitung.
  • Maler Zeitung.
  • Metallarbeiter.
  • Mining and Scientific Press.
  • Neueste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen.
  • Nouvelles Scientifiques.
  • Oils, Colors, and Drysalteries.
  • Papier-Zeitung.
  • Parfumer, Der.
  • Pharmaceutische Zeitung.
  • Pharmaceutische Centralhalle.
  • Pharmaceutische Era.
  • Pharmaceutische Journal.
  • Pharmaceutische Journal Formulary.
  • Photo Times.
  • Polytech. Centralblatt.
  • Polyt. Notizblatt.
  • Popular Science News.
  • Pottery Gazette.
  • Practical Druggist.
  • Revue Chronometrique.
  • Revue de la Droguerie.
  • Revue des Produits Chimiques.
  • Revue Industrielle.
  • Science, Arts and Nature.
  • Science Pratique.
  • Seifensieder Zeitung, Der.
  • Seifenfabrikant, Der.
  • Spatula.
  • Stein der Weisen, Der.
  • Sudd. Apoth. Zeitung.
  • Technisches Centralblatt.
  • Technische Rundschau.
  • Uhland’s Technische Rundschau.
  • Verzinnen Verzinken Vernickeln, Das.
  • Werkmeister Zeitung.
  • Wiener Drogisten Zeitung.
  • Wiener Gewerbe Zeitung.
  • Zeitschrift für die Gesammte Kohlensaure Industrie.

{9}

HENLEY’S BOOK OF RECIPES

ABRASION REMEDY: See Cosmetics and Ointments.

ABSINTHE: See Wines and Liquors.

ACID-PROOFING

An Acid-proof Table Top.—

1.

Copper sulphate

1 part

Potassium chlorate

1 part

Water

8 parts

Boil until salts are dissolved.

2.

Aniline hydrochlorate

3 parts

Water

20 parts

Or, if more readily procurable:

Aniline

6 parts

Hydrochloric acid

9 parts

Water

50 parts

By the use of a brush two coats of solution No. 1 are applied while hot; the second coat as soon as the first is dry. Then two coats of solution No. 2, and the wood allowed to dry thoroughly. Later, a coat of raw linseed oil is to be applied, using a cloth instead of a brush, in order to get a thinner coat of the oil.

A writer in the Journal of Applied Microscopy states that he has used this method upon some old laboratory tables which had been finished in the usual way, the wood having been filled oiled, and varnished. After scraping off the varnish down to the wood, the solutions were applied, and the result was very satisfactory.

After some experimentations the formula was modified without materially affecting the cost, and apparently increasing the resistance of the wood to the action of strong acids and alkalies. The modified formula follows:

1.

Iron sulphate

4 parts

Copper sulphate

4 parts

Potassium permanganate

8 parts

Water, q. s.

100 parts

2.

Aniline

12 parts

Hydrochloric acid

18 parts

Water, q. s.

100 parts

Or:

Aniline hydrochlorate

15 parts

Water, q. s.

100 parts

Solution No. 2 has not been changed, except to arrange the parts per hundred.

The method of application is the same, except that after solution No. 1 has dried the excess of the solution which has dried upon the surface of the wood is thoroughly rubbed off before the application of solution No. 2. The black color does not appear at once, but usually requires a few hours before becoming ebony black. The linseed oil may be diluted with turpentine without disadvantage, and after a few applications the surface will take on a dull and not displeasing polish. The table tops are easily cleaned by washing with water or suds after a course of work is completed, and the application of another coat of oil puts them in excellent order for another course of work. Strong acids or alkalies when spilled, if soon wiped off, have scarcely a perceptible effect.

A slate or tile top is expensive not only in its original cost, but also as a destroyer of glassware. Wood tops when painted, oiled, or paraffined have objectionable features, the latter especially in warm weather. Old table tops, after the paint or oil is scraped off down to the wood, take the above finish nearly as well as the new wood.

To Make Wood Acid- and Chlorine-proof.

—Take 6 pounds of wood tar and 12 pounds rosin, and melt them together in an iron kettle, after which stir in 8 pounds finely powdered brick dust. The damaged parts must be cleaned perfectly and dried, whereupon they may be painted over with the warm preparation or filled up and drawn off, leaving the film on the inside.

Protecting Cement Against Acid.

—A paint to protect cement against acid is obtained by mixing pure asbestos, very finely powdered, with a thick solution of {10} sodium silicate. The sodium silicate must be as alkaline as possible. The asbestos is first rubbed with a small quantity of the silicate, until a cake is obtained and then kept in well-closed vessels. For use this cake is simply thinned with a solution of the silicate, which furnishes a paint two or three applications of which protect the walls of reservoirs, etc., against any acid solid or liquid. This mass may also be employed for making a coating of sandstone.

To Make Corks Impermeable And Acid-proof.

—Choose your corks carefully. Then plunge them into a solution of gelatin or common glue, 15 parts, in 24 parts of glycerine and 500 parts of water, heated to 44° or 48° C. (112°–120° F.), and keep them there for several hours. On removing the corks, which should be weighted down in the solution, dry them in the shade until they are free from all surplus moisture. They are now perfectly tight, retaining at the same time the greater portion of their elasticity and suppleness. To render them acid-proof, they should be treated with a mixture of vaseline, 2 parts, and paraffine 7 parts, heated to about 105° F. This second operation may be avoided by adding to the gelatin solution a little ammonium dichromate and afterwards exposing the corks to the light.

Lining For Acid Receptacles.

—Plates are formed of 1 part of brown slate, 2 of powdered glass, and 1 of Portland cement, the whole worked up with silicate of soda, molded and dried. Make a cement composed of ground slate and silicate of soda and smear the surface for the lining; then, while it is still plastic, apply the plates prepared as above described. Instead of these plates, slabs of glass or porcelain or similar substances may be employed with the same cement.

ACACIA, MUCILAGE OF: See Adhesives under Mucilages.

ACID-PROOF GLASS: See Glass.

ACID-RESISTING PAINT: See Paint.

ACIDS, SOLDERING: See Solders.

ACID STAINS FROM THE SKIN, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ACID TEST FOR VINEGAR: See Vinegar.

ADHESIVES

Glues:

Manufacture Of Glue.

—I.—The usual process of removing the phosphate of lime from bones for glue-making purposes by means of dilute hydrochloric acid has the disadvantage that the acid cannot be regenerated. Attempts to use sulphurous acid instead have so far proved unsuccessful, as, even with the large quantities used, the process is very slow. According to a German invention this difficulty with sulphurous acid can be avoided by using it in aqueous solution under pressure. The solution of the lime goes on very rapidly, it is claimed, and no troublesome precipitation of calcium sulphite takes place. Both phosphate of lime and sulphurous acid are regenerated from the lyes by simple distillation.

II.—Bones may be treated with successive quantities of combined sulphurous acid and water, from which the heat of combination has been previously dissipated, the solution being removed after each treatment, before the bone salts dissolved therein precipitate, and before the temperature rises above 74° F.—U. S. Pat. 783,784.

III.—A patent relating to the process for treating animal sinews, preparatory for the glue factory, has been granted to Florsheim, Chicago, and consists in immersing animal sinews successively in petroleum or benzine to remove the outer fleshy animal skin; in a hardening or preserving bath, as boric acid, or alum or copper sulphate; and in an alkaline bath to remove fatty matter from the fibrous part of the sinews. The sinews are afterwards tanned and disintegrated.

Test For Glue.

—The more water the glue takes up, swelling it, the better it is. Four ounces of the glue to be examined are soaked for about 12 hours in a cool place in 4 pounds of cold water. If the glue has dissolved after this time, it is of bad quality and of little value; but if it is coherent, gelatinous, and weighing double, it is good; if it weighs up to 16 ounces, it is very good; if as much as 20 ounces, it may be called excellent.

To Prevent Glue From Cracking.

—To prevent glue from cracking, which frequently occurs when glued articles are {11} exposed to the heat of a stove, a little chloride of potassium is added. This prevents the glue from becoming dry enough to crack. Glue thus treated will adhere to glass, metals, etc., and may also be used for pasting on labels.

Preventing The Putrefaction Of Strong Glues.

—The fatty matter always existing in small quantity in sheets of ordinary glue affects the adhesive properties and facilitates the development of bacteria, and consequently putrefaction and decomposition. These inconveniences are remedied by adding a small quantity of caustic soda to the dissolved glue. The soda prevents decomposition absolutely; with the fatty matter it forms a hard soap which renders it harmless.

Liquid Glues.—

I.—

Glue

3 ounces

Gelatin

3 ounces

Acetic acid

4 ounces

Water

2 ounces

Alum

30 grains

Heat together for 6 hours, skim, and add:

II.—

Alcohol

1 fluid ounce

Brown glue, No. 2.

2 pounds

Sodium carbonate

11 ounces

Water

3 

¹

/

₂

pints

Oil of clove

160 minims

Dissolve the soda in the water, pour the solution over the dry glue, let stand over night or till thoroughly soaked and swelled, then heat carefully on a water bath until dissolved. When nearly cold stir in the oil of cloves.

By using white glue, a finer article, fit for fancy work, may be made.

III.—Dissolve by heating 60 parts of borax in 420 parts of water, add 480 parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts of glucose and heat carefully with continued stirring, to complete solution; replace the evaporated water and pour through flannel.

The glue made in this way remains clear quite a long time, and possesses great adhesive power; it also dries very quickly, but upon careless and extended heating above 90° C. (194° F.), it is apt to turn brown and brittle.

IV.—Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot) water over 50 parts of Cologne glue and allow to soak over night. Next day the swelled glue is dissolved with moderate heat, and if still too thick, a little more water is added. When this is done, add from 2 ¹/₂ to 3 parts of crude nitric acid, stir well, and fill the liquid glue in well-corked bottles. This is a good liquid steam glue.

V.—Soak 1 pound of good glue in a quart of water for a few hours, then melt the glue by heating it, together with the unabsorbed water, then stir in ¹/₄ pound dry white lead, and when that is well mixed pour in 4 fluidounces of alcohol and continue the boiling 5 minutes longer.

VI.—Soak 1 pound of good glue in 1 ¹/₂ pints of cold water for 5 hours, then add 3 ounces of zinc sulphate and 2 fluidounces of hydrochloric acid, and keep the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at 175° to 190° F. The glue remains liquid and may be used for sticking a variety of materials.

VII.—A very inexpensive liquid glue may be prepared by first soaking and then dissolving gelatin in twice its own weight of water at a very gentle heat; then add glacial acetic acid in weight equal to the weight of the dry gelatin. It should be remembered, however, that all acid glues are not generally applicable.

VIII.—

Glue

200 parts

Dilute acetic acid

400 parts

Dissolve by the aid of heat and add:

Alcohol

25 parts

Alum

5 parts

IX.—

Glue

5 parts

Calcium chloride

1 part

Water

1 part

X.—

Sugar of lead

1 

¹

/

₂

drachms

Alum

1 

¹

/

₂

drachms

Gum arabic

2 

¹

/

₂

drachms

Wheat flour

1 av. lb.

Water, q. s.

Dissolve the gum in 2 quarts of warm water; when cold mix in the flour, and add the sugar of lead and alum dissolved in water; heat the whole over a slow fire until it shows signs of ebullition. Let it cool, and add enough gum water to bring it to the proper consistence.

XI.—Dilute 1 part of official phosphoric acid with 2 parts of water and neutralize the solution with carbonate of ammonium. Add to the liquid an equal quantity of water, warm it on a water bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue to form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stoppered bottles.

XII.—Dissolve 3 parts of glue in small pieces in 12 to 15 of saccharate of lime. By heating, the glue dissolves rapidly and remains liquid, when cold, without loss of adhesive power. Any desirable consistence can be secured by varying the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick glue retains its muddy color, while a thin solution becomes clear on standing.

The saccharate of lime is prepared by {12} dissolving 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of water, and after adding ¹/₄ part of the weight of the sugar of slaked lime, heating the whole from 149° to 185° F., allowing it to macerate for several days, shaking it frequently. The solution, which has the properties of mucilage, is then decanted from the sediment.

XIII.—In a solution of borax in water soak a good quantity of glue until it has thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour off the surplus solution and then put on the water bath and melt the glue. Cool down until the glue begins to set, then add, drop by drop, with agitation, enough acetic acid to check the tendency to solidification. If, after becoming quite cold, there is still a tendency to solidification, add a few drops more of the acid. The liquid should be of the consistence of ordinary mucilage at all times.

XIV.—

Gelatin

100 parts

Cabinetmakers’ glue

100 parts

Alcohol

25 parts

Alum

2 parts

Acetic acid, 20 per cent

800 parts

Soak the gelatin and glue with the acetic acid and heat on a water bath until fluid; then add the alum and alcohol.

XV.—

Glue

10 parts

Water

15 parts

Sodium salicylate

1 part

XVI.—Soak 5 parts of Cologne glue in an aqueous calcium chloride solution (1:4) and heat on the water bath until dissolved, replacing the evaporating water; or slack 100 parts of lime with 150 parts of hot water, dissolve 60 parts of sugar in 180 parts of water, and add 15 parts of the slacked lime to the solution, heating the whole to 75° C. (167° F.). Place aside for a few days, shaking from time to time. In the clear sugar-lime solution collected by decanting soak 60 parts of glue and assist the solution by moderate heating.

XVII.—Molasses, 100 parts, dissolved in 300 parts of water, 25 parts of quicklime (slaked to powder), being then stirred in and the mixture heated to 167° F. on a water bath, with frequent stirrings. After settling for a few days a large portion of the lime will have dissolved, and the clear, white, thick solution, when decanted, behaves like rubber solution and makes a highly adherent coating.

XVIII.—Dissolve bone glue, 250 parts, by heating in 1,000 parts of water, and add to the solution barium peroxide 10 parts, sulphuric acid (66° B.) 5 parts, and water 15 parts. Heat for 48 hours on the water bath to 80° C. (176° F.). Thus a syrupy liquid is obtained, which is allowed to settle and is then decanted. This glue has no unpleasant odor, and does not mold.

XIX.—A glue possessing the adhesive qualities of ordinary joiners’ glue, but constituting a pale yellow liquid which is ready for use without requiring heating and possesses great resistance to dampness, is produced by treating dry casein with a diluted borax solution or with enough ammonia solution to cause a faintly alkaline reaction. The preparation may be employed alone or mixed with liquid starch in any proportion.

Glue For Celluloid.

—I.—Two parts shellac, 3 parts spirits of camphor, and 4 parts strong alcohol dissolved in a warm place, give an excellent gluing agent to fix wood, tin, and other bodies to celluloid. The glue must be kept well corked up.

II.—A collodion solution may be used, or an alcoholic solution of fine celluloid shavings.

Glue To Form Paper Pads.—

I.—

Glue

3 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Glycerine

8 ounces

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerin. If the mixture is too thick, add more water.

II.—

Glue

6 ounces

Alum

30 grains

Acetic acid

 ¹

/

₂

ounce

Alcohol

1 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Water

6 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow to cool and add the alcohol.

III.—

Glue

5 ounces

Water

1 ounce

Calcium chloride

1 ounce

Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate until it is thoroughly softened, and then heat until completely dissolved.

IV.—

Glue

20 ounces

Glycerine

5 ounces

Syrupy glucose

1 ounce

Tannin

50 grains

Cover the glue with cold water, and let stand over night. In the morning pour off superfluous water, throw the glue on muslin, and manipulate so as to get rid of as much moisture as possible, then put in a water bath and melt. Add the {13} glycerine and syrup, and stir well in. Finally, dissolve the tannin in the smallest quantity of water possible and add.

This mixture must be used hot.

V.—

Glue

15 ounces

Glycerine

5 ounces

Linseed oil

2 ounces

Sugar

1 ounce

Soak the glue as before, melt, add the sugar and glycerine, continuing the heat, and finally add the oil gradually under constant stirring.

This must be used hot.

Glue For Tablets.—

I.—

Glue

3 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Glycerine

8 ounces

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is too thick, add more water.

II.—

Glue

6 ounces

Alum

30 grains

Acetic acid

 ¹

/

₂

ounce

Alcohol

1 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Water

6 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow to cool and add the alcohol.

III.—

Glue

5 ounces

Water

1 ounce

Calcium chloride

1 ounce

Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate until it is thoroughly softened, and then apply heat until completely dissolved.

IV.—Glue, 1 pound; glycerine, 4 ounces; glucose syrup, 2 ta­ble­spoon­fuls; tannin, ¹/₁₀ ounce. Use warm, and give an hour to dry and set on the pads. This can be colored with any aniline dye.

Marine Glue.

—Marine glue is a product consisting of shellac and caoutchouc, which is mixed differently according to the use for which it is required. The quantity of benzol used as solvent governs the hardness or softness of the glue.

I.—One part Pará caoutchouc is dissolved in 12 parts benzol; 20 parts powdered shellac are added to the solution, and the mixture is carefully heated.

II.—Stronger glue is obtained by dissolving 10 parts good crude caoutchouc in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which solution is poured slowly and in a fine stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted in a kettle, stirring constantly and heating. Pour the finished glue, after the solvent has almost evaporated and the mass has become quite uniform, into flat molds, in which it solidifies into very hard tablets of dark brown or black color. For use, these glue tablets are first soaked in boiling water and then heated over a free flame until the marine glue has become thinly liquid. The pieces to be glued are also warmed and a very durable union is obtained.

III.—Cut caoutchouc into small pieces and dissolve in coal naphtha by heat and agitation. Add to this solution powdered shellac, and heat the whole, constantly stirring until combination takes place, then pour it on metal plates to form sheets. When used it must be heated to 248° F., and applied with a brush.

Water-proof Glues.

—I.—The glue is put in water till it is soft, and subsequently melted in linseed oil at moderate heat. This glue is affected neither by water nor by vapors.

II.—Dissolve a small quantity of sandarac and mastic in a little alcohol, and add a little turpentine. The solution is boiled in a kettle over the fire, and an equal quantity of a strong hot solution of glue and isinglass is added. Then filter through a cloth while hot.

III.—Water-proof glue may also be produced by the simple addition of bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue solution, and subsequent exposure to the air.

IV.—Mix glue as usual, and then add linseed oil in the proportion of 1 part oil to 8 parts glue. If it is desired that the mixture remain liquid, ¹/₂ ounce of nitric acid should be added to every pound of glue. This will also prevent the glue from souring.

V.—In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol dissolve 60 parts of sandarac and as much mastic whereupon add 60 parts of white oil of turpentine. Next, prepare a rather strong glue solution and add about the like quantity of isinglass, heating the solution until it commences to boil; then slowly add the hot glue solution till a thin paste forms, which can still be filtered through a cloth. Heat the solution before use and employ like ordinary glue. A connection effected with this glue is not dissolved by cold water and even resists hot water for a long time.

VI.—Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue in cold water for 12 hours and in another vessel for the same length of time 150 parts of isinglass in a mixture of lamp spirit and water. Then dissolve both masses together on the water bath in a suitable vessel, thinning, if necessary, with some hot water. Next add 100 {14} parts of linseed oil varnish and filter hot through linen.

VII.—Ordinary glue is kept in water until it swells up without losing its shape. Thus softened it is placed in an iron crucible without adding water; then add linseed oil according to the quantity of the glue and leave this mixture to boil over a slow fire until a gelatinous mass results. Such glue unites materials in a very durable manner. It adheres firmly and hardens quickly. Its chief advantage, however, consists in that it neither absorbs water nor allows it to pass through, whereby the connecting places are often destroyed. A little borax will prevent putrefaction.

VIII.—Bichromate of potassium 40 parts (by weight); gelatin glue, 55 parts; alum, 5 parts. Dissolve the glue in a little water and add the bichromate of potassium and the alum.

IX.—This preparation permits an absolutely permanent gluing of pieces of cardboard, even when they are moistened by water. Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta-percha; of this take 9 parts, and add to it 3 parts of boiled linseed oil and 1 ¹/₂ parts of litharge. Place this over the fire and stir it till all the ingredients are intimately mixed. The mixture may be diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be warm when used.

Glue To Fasten Linoleum On Iron Stairs.

—I.—Use a mixture of glue, isinglass, and dextrin which, dissolved in water and heated, is given an admixture of turpentine. The strips pasted down must be weighted with boards and brick on top until the adhesive agent has hardened.

II.—Soak 3 parts of glue in 8 parts water, add ¹/₂ part hydrochloric acid and ³/₄ part zinc vitriol and let this mixture boil several hours. Coat the floor and the back of the linoleum with this. Press the linoleum down uniformly and firmly and weight it for some time.

Glue For Attaching Gloss To Precious Metals.

—Sandarac varnish, 15 parts; marine glue, 5 parts; drying oil, 5 parts; white lead, 5 parts; Spanish white, 5 parts; turpentine, 5 parts. Triturate all to form a rather homogeneous paste. This glue becomes very hard and resisting.

Elastic Glue.

—Although elastic glue is less durable than rubber, and will not stand much heat, yet it is cheaper than rubber, and is not, like rubber affected by oil colors. Hence it is largely used for printing rollers and stamps. For stamps, good glue is soaked for 24 hours in soft water. The water is poured off, and the swollen glue is melted and mixed with glycerine and a little salicylic acid and cast into molds. The durability is increased by painting the mass with a solution of tannin, or, better, of bichromate of potassium. Printing rollers require greater firmness and elasticity. The mass for them once consisted solely of glue and vinegar, and their manufacture was very difficult. The use of glycerine has remedied this, and gives great elasticity without adhesiveness, and has removed the liability of moldiness. Swollen glue, which has been superficially dried, is fused with glycerine and cast into oil molds. Similar mixtures are used for casting plaster ornaments, etc., and give very sharp casts. A mass consisting of glue and glycerine is poured over the model in a box. When the mold is removed, it is painted with plaster outside and with boiled oil inside, and can then be used many times for making reproductions of the model.

Glue For Paper And Metal.

—A glue which will keep well and adhere tightly is obtained by diluting 1,000 parts by weight of potato starch in 1,200 parts by weight of water and adding 50 parts by weight of pure nitric acid. The mixture is kept in a hot place for 48 hours, taking care to stir frequently. It is afterwards boiled to a thick and transparent consistency, diluted with water if there is occasion, and then there are added in the form of a screened powder, 2 parts of sal ammoniac and 1 part of sulphur flowers.

Glue For Attaching Cloth Strips To Iron.

—Soak 500 parts of Cologne glue in the evening with clean cold water in a clean vessel; in the morning pour off the water, place the softened glue without admixture of water into a clean copper or enamel receptacle, which is put on a moderate low fire (charcoal or steam apparatus). During the dissolution the mass must be continually stirred with a wooden trowel or spatula. If the glue is too thick, it is thinned with diluted spirit, but not with water. As soon as the glue has reached the boiling point, about 50 parts of linseed oil varnish (boiled oil) is added to the mass with constant stirring. When the latter has been stirred up well, add 50 parts of powdered colophony and shake it into the mass with stirring, subsequently removing the glue from the fire. In order to increase the binding qualities and to guard against moisture, it is well still to add about 50 parts of isinglass, which has been previously cut {15} into narrow strips and placed, well beaten, in a vessel, into which enough spirit of wine has been poured to cover all. When dissolved, the last-named mass is added to the boiling glue with constant stirring. The adhesive agent is now ready for use and is employed hot, it being advisable to warm the iron also. Apply glue only to a surface equivalent to a single strip at a time. The strips are pressed down with a stiff brush or a wad of cloth.

Glue For Leather Or Cardboard.

—To attach leather to cardboard dissolve good glue (softened by spelling in water) with a little turpentine and enough water in an ordinary glue pot, and then having made a thick paste with starch in the proportion of 2 parts by weight, of starch powder for every 1 part, by weight, of dry glue, mix the compounds and allow the mixture to become cold before application to the cardboard.

For Wood, Glass, Cardboard, And All Articles Of A Metallic Or Mineral Character.

—Take boiled linseed oil 20 parts, Flemish glue 20 parts, hydrated lime 15 parts, powdered turpentine 5 parts, alum 5 parts acetic acid 5 parts. Dissolve the glue with the acetic acid, add the alum, then the hydrated lime, and finally the turpentine and the boiled linseed oil. Triturate all well until it forms a homogeneous paste and keep in well-closed flasks. Use like any other glue.

Glue For Uniting Metals With Fabrics.

—Cologne glue of good quality is soaked and boiled down to the consistency of that used by cabinetmakers. Then add, with constant stirring, sifted wood ashes until a moderately thick, homogeneous mass results. Use hot and press the pieces well together during the drying. For tinfoil, about 2 per cent of boracic acid should be added instead of the wood ashes.

Glue or Paste for Making Paper Boxes.—

Chloral hydrate

5 parts

Gelatin, white

8 parts

Gum arabic

2 parts

Boiling water

30 parts

Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum arabic in a porcelain container, pour the boiling water over the mixture and let stand for 1 day, giving it a vigorous stirring several times during the day. In cold weather this is apt to get hard and stiff, but this may be obviated by standing the container in warm water for a few minutes. This paste adheres to any surface whatever.

Natural Glue For Cementing Porcelain, Crystal Glass, Etc.

—The large shell snails which are found in vineyards have at the extremity of their body a small, whitish bladder filled with a substance of greasy and gelatinous aspect. If this substance extracted from the bladder is applied on the fragments of porcelain or any body whatever, which are juxtaposed by being made to touch at all parts, they acquire such adhesion that if one strives to separate them by a blow, they are more liable to break at another place than the cemented seam. It is necessary to give this glue sufficient time to dry perfectly, so as to permit it to acquire the highest degree of strength and tenacity.

Belt Glue.

—A glue for belts can be prepared as follows: Soak 50 parts of gelatin in water, pour off the excess of water, and heat on the water bath. With good stirring add, first, 5 parts, by weight, of glycerine, then 10 parts, by weight, of turpentine, and 5 parts, by weight, of linseed oil varnish and thin with water as required. The ends of the belts to be glued are cut off obliquely and warmed; then the hot glue is applied, and the united parts are subjected to strong pressure, allowing them to dry thus for 24 hours before the belts are used.

Chromium Glue For Wood, Paper, And Cloth.

—I.—(a) One-half pound strong glue (any glue if color is immaterial, white fish glue otherwise); soak 12 hours in 12 fluidounces of cold water. (b) One-quarter pound gelatin; soak 2 hours in 12 fluidounces cold water. (c) Two ounces bichromate of potassium dissolved in 8 fluidounces boiling water. Dissolve (a) after soaking, in a glue pot, and add (b). After (a) and (b) are mixed and dissolved, stir in (c). This glue is exceedingly strong, and if the article cemented be exposed to strong sunlight for 1 hour, the glue becomes perfectly waterproof. Of course, it is understood that the exposure to sunlight is to be made after the glue is thoroughly dry. The one objectionable feature of this cement is its color, which is a yellow-brown. By substituting chrome alum in place of the bichromate, an olive color is obtained.

II.—Use a moderately strong gelatin solution (containing 5 to 10 per cent of dry gelatin), to which about 1 part of acid chromate of potassium in solution is added to every 5 parts of gelatin. This mixture has the property of becoming insoluble by water through the action of sunlight under partial reduction of the chromic acid. {16}

Fireproof Glue.—

Raw linseed oil

8 parts

Glue or gelatin

1 part

Quicklime

2 parts

Soak the glue or gelatin in the oil for 10 to 12 hours, and then melt it by gently heating the oil, and when perfectly fluid stir in the quicklime until the whole mass is homogeneous, then spread out in layers to dry gradually, out of the sun’s rays. For use, reheat the glue in a glue pot in the ordinary way of melting glue.

Cements.

Under this heading will be found only cements for causing one substance to adhere to another. Cements used primarily as fillers, such as dental cements, will be found under Cements, Putties, etc.

Cutlers’ Cements for Fixing Knife Blades into Handles.—

I.—

Rosin

4 pounds

Beeswax

1 pound

Plaster of Paris or brickdust

1 pound

II.—

Pitch

5 pounds

Wood ashes

1 pound

Tallow

1 pound

III.—Rosin, 12; sulphur flowers, 3; iron filings, 5. Melt together, fill the handle while hot, and insert the instrument.

IV.—Plaster of Paris is ordinarily used for fastening loose handles. It is made into a moderately thick paste with water run into the hole in the head of the pestle, the handle inserted and held in place till the cement hardens. Some add sand to the paste, and claim to get better results.

V.—Boil together 1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of rosin, and 5 parts of water till homogeneous and add 4 parts of plaster of Paris. The paste sets in half an hour and is but little affected by water.

VI.—Equal quantities of gutta percha and shellac are melted together and well stirred. This is best done in an iron capsule placed on a sandbath and heated over a gas furnace or on the top of a stove. The combination possesses both hardness and toughness, qualities that make it particularly desirable in mending mortars and pestles. In using, the articles to be cemented should be warmed to about the melting point of the mixture and retained in proper position until cool, when they are ready for use.

VII.—

Rosin

600 parts by weight

Sulphur

150 parts by weight

Iron filings

250 parts by weight

Pour the mixture, hot, into the opening of the heated handle and shove in the knife likewise heated.

VIII.—Melt sufficient black rosin, and incorporate thoroughly with it one-fifth its weight of very fine silver sand. Make the pestle hot, pour in a little of the mixture, then force the handle well home, and set aside for a day before using.

IX.—Make a smooth, moderately soft paste with litharge and glycerine; fill the hole in the pestle with the cement, and firmly press the handle in place, keeping it under pressure for three or four days.

Cements For Stone.

—I.—An excellent cement for broken marble consists of 4 parts of gypsum and 1 part of finely powdered gum arabic. Mix intimately. Then with a cold solution of borax make into a mortarlike mass. Smear on each face of the parts to be joined, and fasten the bits of marble together. In the course of a few days the cement becomes very hard and holds very tenaciously. The object mended should not be touched for several days. In mending colored marbles the cement may be given the hue of the marble by adding the color to the borax solution.

II.—A cement which dries instantaneously, qualifying it for all sorts of repairing and only presenting the disadvantage of having to be freshly prepared each time, notwithstanding any subsequent heating, may be made as follows: In a metal vessel or iron spoon melt 4 to 5 parts of rosin (or preferably mastic) and 1 part of beeswax. This mixture must be applied rapidly, it being of advantage slightly to heat the surfaces to be united, which naturally must have been previously well cleaned.

III.—Slaked lime, 10 parts; chalk, 15 parts; kaolin, 5 parts; mix, and immediately before use stir with a corresponding amount of potash water glass.

IV.—Cement on Marble Slabs.—The whole marble slab is thoroughly warmed and laid face down upon a neatly cleaned planing bench upon which a woolen cloth is spread so as not to injure the polish of the slab. Next apply to the slab very hot, weak glue and quickly sift hot plaster of Paris on the glue in a thin even layer, stirring the plaster rapidly into the applied glue by means of a strong spatula, so that a uniform glue-plaster coating is formed on the warm slab. Before this has time to harden tip the respective piece of furniture on the slab. The frame, likewise warmed, will adhere very firmly to the slab after two days. Besides, this process has the advantage of great cleanliness. {17}

V.—The following is a recipe used by marble workers, and which probably can be used to advantage: Flour of sulphur, 1 part; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 2 parts; iron filings, 16 parts. The above substances must be reduced to a powder, and securely preserved in closely stoppered vessels. When the cement is to be employed, take 20 parts very fine iron filings and 1 part of the above powder; mix them together with enough water to form a manageable paste. This paste solidifies in 20 days and becomes as hard as iron. A recipe for another cement useful for joining small pieces of marble or alabaster is as follows: Add ¹/₂ pint of vinegar to ¹/₂ pint skimmed milk; mix the curd with the whites of 5 eggs, well beaten, and sufficient powdered quicklime sifted in with constant stirring so as to form a paste. It resists water and a moderate degree of heat.

VI.—Cement for Iron and Marble.—For fastening iron to marble or stone a good cement is made as follows: Thirty parts plaster of Paris, 10 parts iron filings, ¹/₂ part sal ammoniac mixed with vinegar to a fluid paste fresh for use.

Cement For Sandstones.

—One part sulphur and 1 part rosin are melted separately; the melted masses are mixed and 3 parts litharge and 2 parts ground glass stirred in. The latter ingredients must be perfectly dry, and have been well pulverized and mixed previously.

Equally good cement is obtained by melting together 1 part pitch and ¹/₁₀ part wax, and mixing with 2 parts brickdust.

The stones to be cemented, or between the joints of which the putty is to be poured, must be perfectly dry. If practicable, they should be warmed a little, and the surfaces to which the putty is to adhere painted with oil varnish once or twice. The above two formulæ are of especial value in case the stones are very much exposed to the heat of the sun in summer, as well as to cold, rain, and snow in winter. Experience has shown that in these instances the above-mentioned cements give better satisfaction than the other brands of cement.

Cements for Attaching Objects to Glass.—

Rosin

1 part

Yellow wax

2 parts

Melt together.

To Attach Copper To Glass.

—Boil 1 part of caustic soda and 3 parts of colophony in 5 parts of water and mix with the like quantity of plaster of Paris. This cement is not attacked by water, heat, and petroleum. If, in place of the plaster of Paris, zinc white, white lead, or slaked lime is used, the cement hardens more slowly.

To Fasten Brass Upon Glass.

—Boil together 1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of rosin, 3 parts of gypsum, and 5 parts of water. The cement made in this way hardens in about half an hour, hence it must be applied quickly. During the preparation it should be stirred constantly. All the ingredients used must be in a finely powdered state.

Uniting Glass With Horn.

—(1) A solution of 2 parts of gelatin in 20 parts water is evaporated up to one-sixth of its volume and ¹/₃ mastic dissolved in ¹/₂ spirit added and some zinc white stirred in. The putty is applied warm; it dries easily and can be kept a long time. (2) Mix gold size with the equal volume of water glass.

To Cement Glass To Iron.—

I.—

Rosin

5 ounces

Yellow wax

1 ounce

Venetian red

1 ounce

Melt the wax and rosin on a water bath and add, under constant stirring, the Venetian red previously well dried. Stir until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Venetian red from settling to the bottom.

II.—

Portland cement

2 ounces

Prepared chalk

1 ounce

Fine sand

1 ounce

Solution of sodium silicate enough to form a semi-liquid paste.

III.—

Litharge

2 parts

White lead

1 part

Work into a pasty condition by using 3 parts boiled linseed oil, 1 part copal varnish.

Celluloid Cements.

—I.—To mend broken draughting triangles and other celluloid articles, use 3 parts alcohol and 4 parts ether mixed together and applied to the fracture with a brush until the edges become warm. The edges are then stuck together, and left to dry for at least 24 hours.

II.—Camphor, 1 part; alcohol, 4 parts. Dissolve and add equal quantity (by weight) of shellac to this solution.

III.—If firmness is desired in putting celluloid on wood, tin, etc., the following gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A compound of 2 parts shellac, 3 parts spirit of camphor, and 4 parts strong alcohol. {18}

IV.—

Shellac

2 ounces

Spirits of camphor

2 ounces

Alcohol, 90 per cent

6 to 8 ounces

V.—Make a moderately strong glue or solution of gelatin. In a dark place or a dark room mix with the above a small amount of concentrated solution of potassium dichromate. Coat the back of the label, which must be clean, with a thin layer of the mixture. Strongly press the label against the bottle and keep the two in close contact by tying with twine or otherwise. Expose to sunlight for some hours; this causes the cement to be insoluble even in hot water.

VI.—

Lime

av. oz. 1

White of egg

av. oz. 2 

¹

/

₂

Plaster of Paris

av. oz. 5 

¹

/

₂

Water

fl.  oz. 1

Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix it with the white of egg by trituration, forming a uniform paste. Dilute with water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of Paris, and use the cement immediately. The surfaces to be cemented must first be moistened with water so that the cement will readily adhere. The pieces must be firmly pressed together and kept in this position for about 12 hours.

Cementing Celluloid And Hard-rubber Articles.

—I.—Celluloid articles can be mended by making a mixture composed of 3 parts of alcohol and 4 parts of ether. This mixture should be kept in a well-corked bottle, and when celluloid articles are to be mended, the broken surfaces are painted over with the alcohol and ether mixture until the surfaces soften: then press together and bind and allow to dry for at least 24 hours.

II.—Dissolve 1 part of gum camphor in 4 parts of alcohol; dissolve an equal weight of shellac in such strong camphor solution. The cement is applied warm and the parts united must not be disturbed until the cement is hard. Hard-rubber articles are never mended to form a strong joint.

III.—Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and real asphaltum. The cement is applied hot, and the broken surfaces pressed together and held in place while cooling.

Sign-letter Cements.—

I.—

Copal varnish

15 parts

Drying oil

5 parts

Turpentine (spirits)

3 parts

Oil of turpentine

2 parts

Liquefied glue

5 parts

Melt all together on a water bath until well mixed, and then add 10 parts slaked lime.

II.—Mix 100 parts finely powdered white litharge with 50 parts dry white lead, knead together 3 parts linseed oil varnish and 1 part copal varnish into a firm dough. Coat the side to be attached with this, removing the superfluous cement. It will dry quickly and become very hard.

III.—

Copal varnish

15 parts

Linseed-oil varnish

5 parts

Raw turpentine

3 parts

Oil of turpentine

2 parts

Carpenters’ glue, dissolved in water

5 parts

Precipitated chalk

10 parts

IV.—

Mastic gum

1 part

Litharge, lead

2 parts

White lead

1 part

Linseed oil

3 parts

Melt together to a homogeneous mass. Apply hot. To make a thorough and reliable job, the letters should be heated to at least the temperature of the cement.

To Fix Gold Letters, Etc., Upon Glass.

—I.—The glass must be entirely clean and polished, and the medium is prepared in the following manner: One ounce fish glue or isinglass is dissolved in water so that the latter covers the glue. When this is dissolved a quart of rectified spirit of wine is added, and enough water is poured in to make up one-quarter the whole. The substance must be kept well corked.

II.—Take ¹/₂ quart of the best rum and ¹/₄ ounce fish glue, which is dissolved in the former at a moderate degree of heat. Then add ¹/₂ quart distilled water, and filter through a piece of old linen. The glass is laid upon a perfectly level table and is covered with this substance to the thickness of ¹/₈ inch, using a clean brush. Seize the gold leaf with a pointed object and place it smoothly upon the prepared mass, and it will be attracted by the glass at once. After 5 minutes hold the glass slightly slanting so that the superfluous mass can run off, and leave the plate in this position for 24 hours, when it will be perfectly dry. Now trace the letters or the design on a piece of paper, and perforate the lines with a thick needle, making the holes ¹/₁₆ inch apart. Then place the perforated paper upon the surface of the glass, and stamp the tracery on with powdered chalk. The paper pattern is then carefully removed, and the accurate design will remain upon the gold. The outlines are now filled out with an oily gold mass, mixed with a little chrome orange and diluted with boiled oil or turpentine. When all is dry the superfluous gold is washed off {19} with water by means of a common rag. The back of the glass is then painted with a suitable color.

Attaching Enamel Letters To Glass.

—To affix enamel letters to glass, first clean the surface of the glass perfectly, leaving no grease or sticky substance of any kind adhering to the surface. Then with a piece of soap sketch the outlines of the design. Make the proper division of the guide lines, and strike off accurately the position each letter is to occupy. Then to the back of the letters apply a cement made as follows: White lead ground in oil, 2 parts; dry white lead, 3 parts. Mix to a soft putty consistency with good copal varnish.

With a small knife or spatula apply the cement to the back of the letters, observing especial care in getting the mixture well and uniformly laid around the inside edges of the letter. In attaching the letters to the glass make sure to expel the air from beneath the characters, and to do this, work them up and down and sidewise. If the weather be at all warm, support the letters while drying by pressing tiny beads of sealing wax against the glass, close to the under side or bottom of the letters. With a putty knife, keenly sharpened on one edge, next remove all the surplus cement. Give the letters a hard, firm pressure against the glass around all edges to securely guard against the disruptive attacks of moisture.

The seepage of moisture beneath the surface of the letters is the main cause of their early detachment from the glass.

The removal of the letters from the glass may be effected by applying turpentine to the top of the characters, allowing it to soak down and through the cement. Oxalic acid applied in the same way will usually slick the letters off in a trice.

Cement For Porcelain Letters.

—Slake 15 parts of fresh quicklime in 20 parts of water. Melt 50 parts of caoutchouc and 50 parts of linseed-oil varnish together, and bring the mixture to a boil. While boiling, pour the liquid on the slaked lime, little by little, under constant stirring. Pass the mixture, while still hot, through muslin, to remove any possible lumps, and let cool. It takes the cement 2 days to set completely, but when dry it makes a joint that will resist a great deal of strain. By thinning the mixture down with oil of turpentine, a brilliant, powerfully adhesive varnish is obtained.

Water-glass Cements.

—I.—Water glass (sodium of potassium silicate), which is frequently recommended for cementing glass, does not, as is often asserted, form a vitreous connection between the joined surfaces; and, in fact, some of the commercial varieties will not even dry, but merely form a thick paste, which has a strong affinity for moisture. Good 30° B. water glass is, however, suitable for mending articles that are exposed to heat, and is best applied to surfaces that have been gently warmed; when the pieces are put together they should be pressed warmly, to expel any superfluous cement, and then heated strongly.

To repair cracked glasses or bottles through which water will leak, water glasses may be used, the application being effected in the following easy manner: The vessel is warmed to induce rarefaction of the internal air, after which the mouth is closed, either by a cork in the case of bottles, or by a piece of parchment or bladder if a wide-mouthed vessel is under treatment.

While still hot, the outside of the crack is covered with a little glass, and the vessel set aside to cool, whereupon the difference between the pressure of the external and internal air will force the cement into the fissure and close it completely. All that is then necessary is to take off the cover and leave the vessel to warm for a few hours. Subsequently rinse it out with lime water, followed by clean water, and it will then hold any liquid, acids and alkaline fluids alone excepted.

II.—When water glass is brought into contact with calcium chloride, a calcium silicate is at once formed which is insoluble in water. It seems possible that this reaction may be used in binding together masses of sand, etc. The process indicated has long been used in the preservation of stone which has become “weathered.” The stone is first brushed with the water glass and afterwards with a solution of calcium chloride. The conditions here are of course different.

Calcium chloride must not be confounded with the so-called “chloride of lime” which is a mixture of calcium hypochlorite and other bodies.

To Fasten Paper Tickets To Glass.

—To attach paper tickets to glass, the employment of water glass is efficacious. Care should be taken to spread this product on the glass and not on the paper, and then to apply the paper dry, which should be done immediately. When the solution is dry the paper cannot be {20} detached. The silicate should be somewhat diluted. It is spread on the glass with a rag or a small sponge.

Jewelers’ Cements.

Jewelers and goldsmiths require, for the cementing of genuine and colored gems, as well as for the placing of colored folio under certain stones, very adhesive gluing agents, which must, however, be colorless. In this respect these are distinguished chiefly by the so-called diamond cement and the regular jewelers’ cement. Diamond cement is much esteemed by jewelers for cementing precious stones and corals, but may also be employed with advantage for laying colored fluxes of glass on white glass. The diamond cement is of such a nature as to be able to remain for some time in contact with water without becoming soft. It adheres best between glass or between precious stones. It is composed as follows: Isinglass 8 parts, gum ammoniac 1 part, galbanum 1 part, spirit of wine 4 parts. Soak the isinglass in water with admixture of a little spirit of wine and add the solution of the gums in the remainder of the spirit of wine. Before use, heat the diamond cement a little so as to soften it. Jewelers’ cement is used for similar purposes as is the diamond cement, and is prepared from: Isinglass (dry) 10 parts, mastic varnish 5 parts. Dissolve the isinglass in very little water, adding some strong spirit of wine. The mastic varnish is prepared by pouring a mixture of highly rectified spirit of wine and benzine over finely powdered mastic and dissolving it in the smallest possible quantity of liquid. The two solutions of isinglass and mastic are intimately ground together in a porcelain dish.

Armenian Cement.

—The celebrated “Armenian” cement, so called formerly used by Turkish and Oriental jewelers generally, for setting precious stones, “facing diamonds,” rubies, etc., is made as follows:

Mastic gum

10 parts

Isinglass (fish glue)

20 parts

Gum ammoniac

5 parts

Alcohol absolute

60 parts

Alcohol, 50 per cent

35 parts

Water

100 parts

Dissolve the mastic in the absolute alcohol; dissolve, by the aid of gentle heat, on the water bath, the isinglass in the water, and add 10 parts of the dilute alcohol. Now dissolve the ammoniacum in the residue of the dilute alcohol. Add the first solution to the second, mix thoroughly by agitation and then add the solution of gum ammoniac and stir well in. Finally put on the water bath, and keeping at a moderate heat, evaporate the whole down to 175 parts.

Cement For Enameled Dials.

—The following is a good cement for enameled dials, plates, or other pieces: Grind into a fine powder 2 ¹/₂ parts of dammar rosin and 2 ¹/₂ parts of copal, using colorless pieces if possible. Next add 2 parts of Venetian turpentine and enough spirit of wine so that the whole forms a thick paste. To this grind 3 parts of the finest zinc white. The mass now has the consistency of prepared oil paint. To remove the yellow tinge of the cement add a trifle of Berlin blue to the zinc white. Finally, the whole is heated until the spirit of wine is driven off and a molten mass remains, which is allowed to cool and is kept for use. Heat the parts to be cemented.

Watch-lid Cement.

—The hardest cement for fixing on watch lids is shellac. If the lids are exceedingly thin the engraving will always press through. Before cementing it on the inside of the lid, in order not to injure the polish, it is coated with chalk dissolved in alcohol, which is first allowed to dry. Next melt the shellac on the stick, heat the watch lid and put it on. After the engraving has been done, simply force the lid off and remove the remaining shellac from the latter by light tapping. If this does not remove it completely lay the lid in alcohol, leaving it therein until all the shellac has dissolved. All that remains to be done now is to wash out the watch lid.

Jewelers’ Glue Cement.

—Dissolve on a water bath 50 parts of fish glue in a little 95-per-cent alcohol, adding 4 parts, by weight, of gum ammoniac. On the other hand, dissolve 2 parts, by weight, of mastic in 10 parts, by weight, of alcohol. Mix these two solutions and preserve in a well-corked flask. For use it suffices to soften it on the water bath.

Casein Cements.—

I.—

Borax

5 parts

Water

95 parts

Casein, sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the borax in water and incorporate enough casein to produce a mass of the proper consistency.

II.—The casein is made feebly alkaline by means of soda or potash lye and {21} then subjected for about 24 hours to a temperature of 140° F. Next follow the customary admixture, such as lime and water glass, and finally, to accomplish a quicker resinification, substances containing tannin are added. For tannic admixtures to the partially disintegrated casein, slight quantities—about 1 per cent—of gallic acid, cutch, or quercitannic acid are employed. The feebly alkaline casein cement containing tannic acid is used in the well-known manner for the gluing together of wood.

For Metals.

—Make a paste with 16 ounces casein, 20 ounces slaked lime, and 20 ounces of sand, in water.

For Glass.

—I.—Dissolve casein in a concentrated solution of borax.

II.—Make a paste of casein and water glass.

Pasteboard And Paper Cement.

—I.—Let pure glue swell in cold water; pour and press off the excess; put on the water bath and melt. Paper or other material cemented with this is then immediately, before the cement dries, submitted to the action of formaldehyde and dried. The cement resists the action of water, even hot.

II.—Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta percha. To 9 parts of this mass add 3 parts of boiled linseed oil and ¹/₅ part litharge. The heat is kept up until, with constant stirring, an intimate union of all the ingredients has taken place. The mixture is diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine and applied while still warm. The cement is waterproof.

III.—The National Druggist says that experience with pasting or cementing parchment paper seems to show that about the best agent is casein cement, made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax.

IV.—The following is recommended for paper boxes:

Chloral hydrate

5 parts

Gelatin, white

8 parts

Gum arabic

2 parts

Boiling water

30 parts

Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum arabic in a porcelain container, pour the boiling water over the mixture and let stand for 1 day, giving it a vigorous stirring several times during the day. In cold weather this is apt to get hard and stiff, but this may be obviated by standing the container in warm water for a few minutes. This paste adheres to any surface whatever.

Waterproof Cements For Glass, Stoneware, And Metal.

—I.—Make a paste of sulphur, sal ammoniac, iron filings, and boiled oil.

II.—Mix together dry: Whiting, 6 pounds; plaster of Paris, 3 pounds; sand, 3 pounds; litharge, 3 pounds; rosin, 1 pound. Make to a paste with copal varnish.

III.—Make a paste of boiled oil, 6 pounds; copal, 6 pounds; litharge, 2 pounds; white lead, 1 pound.

IV.—Make a paste with boiled oil, 3 pounds; brickdust 2 pounds; dry slaked lime, 1 pound.

V.—Dissolve 93 ounces of alum and 93 ounces of sugar of lead in water to concentration. Dissolve separately 152 ounces of gum arabic in 25 gallons of water, and then stir in 62 ¹/₂ pounds of flour. Then heat to a uniform paste with the metallic salts, but take care not to boil the mass.

VI.—For Iron and Marble to Stand in Heat.—In 3 pounds of water dissolve first, 1 pound water glass and then 1 pound of borax. With the solution make 2 pounds of clay and 1 pound of barytes, first mixed dry, to a paste.

VII.—Glue to Resist Boiling Water.—Dissolve separately in water 55 pounds of glue and a mixture of 40 pounds of bichromate and 5 pounds of alum. Mix as wanted.

VIII. (Chinese Glue).—Dissolve shellac in 10 times its weight of ammonia.

IX.—Make a paste of 40 ounces of dry slaked lime 10 ounces of alum, and 50 ounces of white of egg.

X.—

Alcohol

1,000 parts

Sandarac

60 parts

Mastic

60 parts

Turpentine oil

60 parts

Dissolve the gums in the alcohol and add the oil and stir in. Now prepare a solution of equal parts of glue and isinglass, by soaking 125 parts of each in cold water until it becomes saturated, pouring and pressing off the residue, and melting on the water bath. This should produce a volume of glue nearly equal to that of the solution of gums. The latter should, in the meantime, have been cautiously raised to the boiling point on the water bath, and then mixed with the hot glue solution.

It is said that articles united with this substance will stand the strain of cold water for an unlimited time, and it takes hot water even a long time to affect it. {22}

XI.—

Burgundy pitch

6 parts

Gutta percha

1 part

Pumice stone, in fine powder

3 parts

Melt the gutta percha very carefully add the pumice stone, and lastly the pitch, and stir until homogeneous.

Use while still hot. This cement will withstand water and dilute mineral acids.

Leather And Rubber Cements.

I.—Use a melted mixture of gutta percha and genuine asphalt, applied hot. The hard-rubber goods must be kept pressed together until the cement has cooled.

II.—A cement which is effective for cementing rubber to iron and which is especially valuable for fastening rubber bands to bandsaw wheels is made as follows: Powdered shellac, 1 part; strong water of ammonia, 10 parts. Put the shellac in the ammonia water and set it away in a tightly closed jar for 3 or 4 weeks. By that time the mixture will become a perfectly liquid transparent mass and is then ready for use. When applied to rubber the ammonia softens it, but it quickly evaporates, leaving the rubber in the same condition as before. The shellac clings to the iron and thus forms a firm bond between the iron and the rubber.

III.—

Gutta percha white

1 drachm

Carbon disulphide

1 ounce

Dissolve, filter, and add:

India rubber

15 grains

Dissolve.

Cement For Metal On Hard Rubber.

—I.—Soak good Cologne glue and boil down so as to give it the consistency of joiners’ glue, and add with constant stirring, enough sifted wood ashes until a homogeneous, moderately thick mass results. Use warm and fit the pieces well together while drying.

How To Unite Rubber And Leather.

—II.—Roughen both surfaces, the leather and the rubber, with a sharp glass edge; apply to both a diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bisulphide and let this solution soak into the material. Then press upon each surface a skin of gutta percha ¹/₁₀ of an inch in thickness between rolls. The two surfaces are now united in a press, which should be warm but not hot. This method should answer in all cases in which it is applicable. The other prescription covers cases in which a press cannot be used. Cut 30 parts of rubber into small pieces, and dissolve it in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the vessel being placed on a water bath of 30° C. (86° F.). Further, melt 10 parts of rubber with 15 of colophony, and add 35 parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has been completely dissolved, the two liquids may be mixed. The resulting cement must be kept well corked.

To Fasten Rubber To Wood.

—I.—Make a cement by macerating virgin gum rubber, or as pure rubber as can be had, cut in small pieces, in just enough naphtha or gasoline to cover it. Let it stand in a very tightly corked or sealed jar for 14 days, or a sufficient time to become dissolved, shaking the mixture daily.

II.—Dissolve pulverized gum shellac, 1 ounce, in 9 ¹/₂ ounces of strong ammonia. This of course must be kept tightly corked. It will not be as elastic as the first preparation.

III.—Fuse together shellac and gutta percha in equal weights.

IV.—

India rubber

8 ounces

Gutta percha

4 ounces

Isinglass

2 ounces

Bisulphide of carbon

32 ounces

V.—

India rubber

5 ounces

Gum mastic

1 ounce

Chloroform

3 ounces

VI.—

Gutta percha

16 ounces

India rubber

4 ounces

Pitch

4 ounces

Shellac

1 ounce

Linseed oil

1 ounce

Amalgamate by heat.

VII.—Mix 1 ounce of oil of turpentine with 10 ounces of bisulphide of carbon in which as much gutta percha as possible has been dissolved.

VIII.—Amalgamate by heat:

Gutta percha

100 ounces

Venice turpentine

80 ounces

Shellac

8 ounces

India rubber

2 ounces

Liquid storax

10 ounces

IX.—Amalgamate by heat:

India rubber

100 ounces

Rosin

15 ounces

Shellac

10 ounces

Then dissolve in bisulphide of carbon.

X.—Make the following solutions separately and mix:

(

a

)

India rubber

5 ounces

Chloroform

140 ounces

(

b

)

India rubber

5 ounces

Rosin

2 ounces

Venice turpentine

1 ounce

Oil of turpentine

20 ounces

{23}

Cement for Patching Rubber Boots and Shoes.—

I.—

India rubber, finely chopped

100 parts

Rosin

15 parts

Shellac

10 parts

Carbon disulphide, q. s. to dissolve.

This will not only unite leather to leather, india rubber, etc., but will unite rubber to almost any substance.

II.—

Caoutchouc, finely cut

4 parts

India rubber, finely cut

1 part

Carbon disulphide

32 parts

Dissolve the caoutchouc in the carbon disulphide, add the rubber, let macerate a few days, then mash with a palette knife to a smooth paste. The vessel in which the solution is made in both instances above must be kept tightly closed, and should have frequent agitations.

III.—Take 100 parts of crude rubber or caoutchouc, cut it up in small bits, and dissolve it in sufficient carbon bisulphide, add to it 15 parts of rosin and 10 parts of gum lac. The user must not overlook the great inflammability and exceedingly volatile nature of the carbon bisulphide.

Tire Cements.—

I.—

India rubber

15 grams

Chloroform

2 ounces

Mastic

 ¹

/

₂

ounce

Mix the india rubber and chloroform together, and when dissolved, the mastic is added in powder. It is then allowed to stand a week or two before using.

II.—The following is recommended as very good for cementing pneumatic tires to bicycle wheels:

Shellac

1 ounce

Gutta percha

1 ounce

Sulphur

45 grains

Red lead

45 grains

Melt together the shellac and gutta percha, then add, with constant stirring, the sulphur and red lead. Use while hot.

III.—

Raw gutta percha

16 ounces

Carbon bisulphide

72 ounces

Eau de Cologne

2 

²

/

₃

ounces

This cement is the subject of an English patent and is recommended for patching cycle and motor tires, insulating electric wires, etc.

IV.—A good thick shellac varnish with which a small amount of castor oil has been mixed will be found a very excellent bicycle rim cement. The formula recommended by Edel is as follows:

Shellac

1 pound

Alcohol

1 pint

Mix and dissolve, then add:

Castor oil

 ¹

/

₂

ounce

The castor oil prevents the cement from becoming hard and brittle.

A cement used to fasten bicycle tires may be made by melting together at a gentle heat equal parts of gutta percha and asphalt. Apply hot. Sometimes a small quantity each of sulphur and red lead is added (about 1 part of each to 20 parts of cement).

Cements For Leather.—

I.—

Gutta percha

20 parts

Syrian asphalt, powdered

20 parts

Carbon disulphide

50 parts

Oil of turpentine

10 parts

The gutta percha, shredded fine, is dissolved in the carbon disulphide and turpentine oil. To the solution add the asphalt and set away for several days, or until the asphalt is dissolved. The cement should have the consistency of honey. If the preparation is thinner than this let it stand, open, for a few days. Articles to be patched should first be washed with benzine.

II.—

Glue

1 ounce

Starch paste

2 ounces

Turpentine

1 drachm

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Dissolve the glue in sufficient water with heat; mix the starch paste with water; add the turpentine, and finally mix with the glue while hot.

III.—Soak for one day 1 pound of common glue in enough water to cover, and 1 pound of isinglass in ale droppings. Then mix together and heat gently until boiling. At this point add a little pure tannin and keep boiling for an hour. If the glue and isinglass when mixed are too thick, add water. This cement should be used warm and the jointed leather pressed tightly together for 12 hours.

IV.—A waterproof cement for leather caoutchouc, or balata, is prepared by dissolving gutta percha, caoutchouc, benzoin, gum lac, mastic, etc., in some convenient solvent like carbon disulphide, chloroform, ether, or alcohol. The best solvent, however, in the case of gutta percha, is carbon disulphide and ether for mastic. The most favorable proportions are as follows: Gutta percha, 200 to 300 parts to 100 parts of the solvent, and 75 to 85 parts of mastic to 100 parts of ether. From 5 to 8 parts of the former solution are mixed with 1 {24} part of the latter, and the mixture is then boiled on the water bath, or in a vessel fitted with a water jacket.

V.—Make a solution of 200 to 300 parts of caoutchouc, gutta percha, india rubber, benzoin, or similar gum, in 1,000 parts of carbon disulphide, chloroform, ether, or alcohol, and of this add 5 to 8 parts to a solution of mastic (75 to 125 parts) in ether 100 parts, of equal volume and boil together. Use hot water as the boiling agent, or boil very cautiously on the water bath.

VI.—Forty parts of aluminum acetate, 10° B., 10 parts of glue, 10 parts of rye flour. These materials are either to be simultaneously mixed and boiled, or else the glue is to be dissolved in the aluminum acetate, and the flour stirred into the solution. This is an excellent cement for leather, and is used in so-called art work with leather, and with leather articles which are made of several pieces. It is to be applied warm.

Rubber Cement For Cloth.

—The following formulas have been recommended:

I.—Caoutchouc, 5 parts; chloroform, 3 parts. Dissolve and add gum mastic (powder) 1 part.

II.—Gutta percha, 16 parts; india rubber, 4 parts; pitch, 2 parts; shellac, 1 part; linseed oil, 2 parts. Reduce the solids to small pieces, melt together with the oil and mix well.

III.—The following cement for mending rubber shoes and tires will answer similar purposes:

Caoutchouc in shavings

10 parts by weight

Rosin

4 parts by weight

Gum turpentine

40 parts by weight

Oil turpentine, enough.

Melt together first the caoutchouc and rosin, then add the gum turpentine, and when all is liquefied, add enough of oil of turpentine to preserve it liquid. A second solution is prepared by dissolving together:

Caoutchouc

10 parts by weight

Chloroform

280 parts by weight

For use these two solutions are mixed. Wash the hole in the rubber shoe over with the cement, then a piece of linen dipped in it is placed over it; as soon as the linen adheres to the sole, the cement is then applied as thickly as required.

Cements For Metals and For Attaching Various Substances To Metals:

Cements For Iron.

—I.—To make a good cement for iron on iron, make a thick paste, with water, of powdered iron, 60 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts, and sulphur flowers, 1 part. Use while fresh.

II.—Sulphur flowers, 6 parts; dry white lead 6 parts, and powdered borax, 1 part. Mix by sifting and keep as a dry powder in a closed tin box. To use, make into a thin paste with strong sulphuric acid and press together immediately. This cement will harden in 5 days.

III.—

Graphite

50 pounds

Whiting

15 pounds

Litharge

15 pounds

Make to a paste with a boiled oil.

IV.—Make a paste of white lead and asbestos.

V.—Make a paste of litharge and glycerine. Red lead may be added. This also does for stone.

VI.—Make a paste of boiled oil of equal parts of white lead, pipe clay, and black oxide of manganese.

VII.—Make iron filings to a paste with water glass.

VIII.—

Sal ammoniac

4 ounces

Sulphur

2 ounces

Iron filings

32 ounces

Make as much as is to be used at once to a paste with a little water. This remark applies to both the following dry recipes:

IX.—

Iron filings

160 ounces

Lime

80 ounces

Red lead

16 ounces

Alum

8 ounces

Sal ammoniac

2 ounces

X.—

Clay

10 ounces

Iron filings

4 ounces

Salt

1 ounce

Borax

1 ounce

Black oxide of manganese

2 ounces

XI.—Mix:

Iron filings

180 ounces

Lime

45 ounces

Salt

8 ounces

XII.—Mix:

Iron filings

140 ounces

Hydraulic lime

20 ounces

Sand

25 ounces

Sal ammoniac

3 ounces

Either of these last two mixtures is made into a paste with strong vinegar just before use.

XIII.—Mix equal weights of zinc oxide and black oxide of manganese into a paste with water glass.

XIV.—Copal varnish, 15 parts; hydrated lime, 10 parts; glue de nerfs (of sinews), 5 parts; fat drying oil, 5 parts; {25} powdered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of turpentine, 2 parts. Dissolve the glue de nerfs on the water bath, add all the other substances, and triturate intimately.

XV.—Copal varnish, 15 parts; powdered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of turpentine, 2 parts; powdered fish glue, 3 parts; iron filings, 3 parts; ocher, 10 parts.

XVI.—To make a cement for cast iron, take 16 ounces cast-iron borings; 2 ounces sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce sulphur. Mix well and keep dry. When ready to use take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of cast-iron borings and mix thoroughly into a stiff paste, adding a little water.

XVII.—

Litharge

2 parts

Boiled linseed oil

2 parts

White lead

1 part

Copal

1 part

Heat together until of a uniform consistence and apply warm.

XVIII.—A cement for iron which is said to be perfectly waterproof and fireproof is made by working up a mixture of equal weights of red lead and litharge with glycerine till the mass is perfectly homogeneous and has the consistency of a glazier’s putty. This cement is said to answer well, even for very large iron vessels, and to be unsurpassable for stopping up cracks in large iron pans of steam pipes.

Cement For Metal, Glass, And Porcelain.

—A soft alloy is prepared by mixing from 30 to 36 parts of copper precipitated in the form of a fine brown powder, with sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.85 in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar and incorporating by stirring with 75 parts of mercury, the acid being afterwards removed by washing with water. In from 10 to 14 hours the amalgam becomes harder than tin, but when heated to 692° F., it can be kneaded like wax. In this condition it is applied to the surface to be cemented, and will fix them firmly together on cooling.

Dissolve 1 drachm of gum mastic in 3 drachms of spirits of wine. In a separate vessel containing water soak 3 drachms of isinglass. When thoroughly soaked take it out of the water and put it into 5 drachms of spirits of wine. Take a piece of gum ammoniacum the size of a large pea and grind it up finely with a little spirits of wine and isinglass until it has dissolved. Then mix the whole together with sufficient heat. It will be found most convenient to place the vessel on a hot-water bath. Keep this cement in a bottle closely stoppered, and when it is to be used, place it in hot water until dissolved.

Cements For Fastening Porcelain To Metal.

—I.—Mix equal parts of alcohol (95 per cent) and water, and make a paste by incorporating the liquid with 300 parts of finely pulverized chalk and 250 parts of starch.

II.—Mix finely powdered burned lime, 300 parts, with powdered starch, 250 parts, and moisten the mixture with a compound of equal parts of water and alcohol of 95 per cent until a paste results.

III.—Cement or plaster can be used if the surfaces are sufficiently large; cement is the better article when the object may be exposed to moisture or subjected to much pressure. A process which can be recommended consists in mingling equal weights of chalk, brickdust, clay, and Romain cement. These materials, pulverized and sifted are incorporated with linseed oil in the proportion of half a kilo of oil to 3 kilos of the mingled powder. The Romain or Romanic cement is so designated from the district in France where the calcareous stone from which it is prepared is found in considerable quantity. Although its adhesive qualities are unquestioned, there are undoubtedly American cements equally as good.

IV.—Acetate of lead, 46 ¹/₂ parts by weight; alum, 46 ¹/₂ parts by weight; gum arabic, 76 parts by weight; flour, 500 parts by weight; water, 2,000 parts by weight. Dissolve the acetate of lead and the alum in a little water; on the other hand dissolve the gum arabic in water by pouring, for instance, the 2 liters of boiling water on the gum arabic reduced to powder. When the gum has dissolved, add the flour, put all on the fire, and stir well with a piece of wood; then add the solution of acetate of lead and the alum; agitate well so as to prevent any lumps from forming; retire from the fire before allowing to boil. This glue is used cold, does not peel off, and is excellent to make wood, glass, cardboard, etc. adhere to metals.

Cement For Leather And Iron.

—To face a cast-iron pulley with leather apply acetic acid to the face of the pulley with a brush, which will roughen it by rusting, and then when dry apply a cement made of 1 pound of fish glue and ¹/₂ pound of common glue, melted in a mixture of alcohol and water. The leather should then be placed on the pulley and dried under pressure. {26}

Amber Cements.

—I.—To solder together two pieces of yellow amber, slightly heat the parts to be united and moisten them with a solution of caustic soda; then bring the two pieces together quickly.

II.—Dissolve in a closed bottle 75 parts of cut-up caoutchouc in 60 parts of chloroform. Add 15 parts of mastic and let the mixture stand in the cold until all has dissolved.

III.—Moisten the pieces to be joined with caustic potash and press them together when warm. The union is so perfect that no trace of the juncture is visible. A concentrated alcoholic solution of the rosin over the amber, soluble in alcohol, is also employed for this purpose. Another medium is a solution of hard and very finely powdered copal in pure sulphuric ether. Coat both fractures, previously well cleaned, with this solution and endeavor to combine them intimately by tying or pressing.

IV.—In 30 parts by weight of copal dissolve 30 parts by weight of alumina by means of a water bath. Bathe the surface to be cemented with this gelatinous liquid, but very slightly. Unite the fractures and press them together firmly until the mixture is dry.

Acid-proof Cements For Stoneware And Glass.

—I.—Mix with the aid of heat equal weights of pitch, rosin, and plaster of Paris.

II.—Mix silicate of soda to a paste with ground glass.

III.—Mix boiled oil to a paste with china clay.

IV.—Mix coal tar to a paste with pipe clay.

V.—Mix boiled oil to a paste with quicklime.

VI.—Mix with the aid of heat: Sulphur, 100 pounds; tallow, 2 pounds; rosin, 2 pounds. Thicken with ground glass.

VII.—Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 2 pounds; sulphur, 2 pounds; brickdust, 4 pounds.

VIII.—Mix with the aid of heat 2 pounds of india rubber and 4 pounds of oiled oil. Thicken with 12 pounds of pipe clay.

IX.—Fuse 100 pounds of india rubber with 7 pounds of tallow. Then make to a paste with dry slaked lime and finally add 20 pounds of red lead.

X.—Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 24 pounds; red ocher, 8 pounds; boiled oil, 2 pounds; plaster of Paris, 4 pounds.

Acid-Proof Cement for Wood, Metals, etc.—

I.—

Powdered asbestos

2 parts

Ground baryta

1 part

Sodium water-glass solution

2 parts

Mix.

II.—To withstand hot nitric acid the following is used:

 

Sodium water-glass solution

2 parts

Sand

1 part

Asbestos

1 part

Mix.

III.—

Asbestos

2 parts

Sulphate of barium

3 parts

Silicate of sodium

2 parts

By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the strongest nitric acid will be obtained.

IV.—If hot acids are dealt with, the following mixture will be found to possess still more resistant powers:

 

Silicate of sodium (50° Baumé)

2 parts

Fine sand

1 part

Asbestos

1 part

Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to set at once, use silicate of potassium, instead of silicate of sodium. This mixture will be instantly effective and possesses the same power of resistance as the other.

Directions For Repairing Broken Glass, Porcelain, Bric-à-brac.

—Broken glass, china, bric-à-brac, and picture frames, not to name casts, require each a different cement—in fact, several different cements. Glass may be beautifully mended to look at, but seldom so as to be safely used. For clear glass the best cement is isinglass dissolved in gin. Put 2 ounces of isinglass in a clean, wide-mouthed bottle, add half a pint of gin, and set in the sun until dissolved. Shake well every day, and before using strain through double lawn, squeezing very gently.

Spread a white cloth over the mending table and supply it with plenty of clean linen rags, strong rubber bands, and narrow white tape, also a basin of tepid water and a clean soft towel. Wash the broken glass very clean, especially along the break, but take care not to chip it further. Wet both broken edges well with the glue, using a camel’s-hair pencil. Fit the break to a nicety, then slip on rubber bands length- and cross-wise, every way they will hold. If they will not hold true as upon a stemmed {27} thing, a vase or jug or scent bottle, string half a dozen bands of the same size and strength upon a bit of tape, and tie the tape about neck or base before beginning the gluing. After the parts are joined slip another tape through the same bands and tie it above the fracture; thus with all their strength the bands pull the break together. The bands can be used thus on casts of china—in fact, to hold anything mendable. In glass mending the greater the pressure the better—if only it stops short of the breaking point. Properly made the isinglass cement is as clear as water. When the pieces fit true one on the other the break should be hardly visible, if the pressure has been great enough to force out the tiny bubbles, which otherwise refract the light and make the line of cleavage distressingly apparent. Mended glass may be used to hold dry things—as rose leaves, sachets, violet powder, even candies and fruits. But it will not bear to have any sort of liquid left standing in it, nor to be washed beyond a quick rinsing in tepid water. In wiping always use a very soft towel, and pat the vessel dry with due regard to its infirmities.

Mend a lamp loose in the collar with sifted plaster of Paris mixed to a very soft paste with beaten white of egg. Have everything ready before wetting up the plaster, and work quickly so it may set in place. With several lamps to mend wet enough plaster for one at a time. It takes less than 5 minutes to set, and is utterly worthless if one tries working it over. Metal work apart from the glass needs the soldering iron. Dust the break well with powdered rosin, tie the parts firmly together, lay the stick of solder above the break, and fetch the iron down on it lightly but firmly. When the solder cools, remove the melted rosin with a cloth dipped in alcohol.

Since breakables have so unhappy a knack of fracturing themselves in such fashion they cannot possibly stand upright, one needs a sand box. It is only a box of handy size with 8 inches of clean, coarse sand in the bottom. Along with it there should be some small leaden weights, with rings cast in them, running from an ounce to a quarter pound. Two of each weight are needed. In use, tapes are tied to the rings, and the pair of weights swung outside the edges of the box, so as to press in place the upper part of a broken thing to which the tapes have been fastened.

Set broken platters on edge in the sand box with the break up. The sand will hold them firm, and the broken bit can be slapped on. It is the same with plates and saucers. None of these commonly requires weighting. But very fine pieces where an invisible seam is wanted should be held firm until partly set, then have the pair of heaviest weights accurately balanced across the broken piece. The weights are also very useful to prop and stay topheavy articles and balance them so they shall not get out of kilter. A cup broken, as is so common with cups, can have the tape passed around it, crossing inside the handle, then be set firmly in the sand, face down, and be held by the hanging weights pulling one against the other.

The most dependable cement for china is pure white lead, ground in linseed oil, so thick it will barely spread smoothly with a knife. Given time enough to harden (some 3 months), it makes a seam practically indestructible. The objection to it is that it always shows in a staring white line. A better cement for fine china is white of egg and plaster. Sift the plaster three times and tie a generous pinch of it loosely in mosquito netting. Then beat the egg until it will stick to the plaster. Have the broken edge very clean, cover both with the beaten egg, dust well with the plaster, fit together at once, tie, using rubber bands if possible, wrap loosely in very soft tissue paper, and bury head and ears in the sand box, taking care that the break lies so that the sand will hold it together. Leave in the box 24 hours. After a week the superfluous plaster may be gently scraped away.

General Formulas For Cements For Repairing Porcelain, Glassware, Crockery, Plaster, And Meerschaum.

—I.—An excellent cement for joining broken crockery and similar small articles can be made by melting 4 or 5 parts of rosin (or, better still, gum mastic) with 1 part of beeswax in an iron spoon or similar vessel. Apply while hot. It will not stand great heat.

II.—An excellent cement for porcelain and stoneware is obtained by mixing 20 parts of fish glue with an equal weight of crystallizable acetic acid and evaporate the mixture carefully to a syrupy consistency so that it forms a gelatinous mass on cooling. For use the cement thus obtained is made liquid again by heating and applied to the fracture with a brush. The pieces should now be pressed firmly together, by winding a twine tightly around them, until the cement has hardened.

III.—For luting vessels made of glass, {28} porcelain, etc., which are to be used to hold strong acids, a mixture of asbestos powder, water glass, and an indifferent powder (permanent white, sand, etc.) is recommended. To begin with, asbestos powder is made into a pulp with three or four times the quantity (weight) of a solution of soda water glass (of 30° B.). The same is exceedingly fat and plastic, but is not very well suited for working, as it shrinks too much and cracks when drying. By an addition of fine writing sand of the same weight as the asbestos used, the mass can be made less fat, so as to obviate shrinking, without detracting from the plasticity. Small vessels were molded from it and dried in the air, to be tested afterwards. Put in water, the hardened mass becomes soft again and falls apart. Brought into contact, however, with very strong mineral acids, it becomes even firmer and withstands the liquid perfectly. Concentrated nitric acid was kept in such small vessels without the mass being visibly attacked or anything penetrating it. The action of the acid manifestly has the effect that silicic acid is set free from the water glass in excess, which clogs up the pores entirely and contributes to the lutation. Later on, the mass cannot be dissolved by pure water any more. The mass is also highly fireproof. One of the molded bodies can be kept glowing in a Bunsen gas flame for about half a day after treatment with acid, without slagging in the least. For many purposes it ought to be welcome to have such a mass at hand. It cannot be kept ready for use, however, as it hardens a few hours after being prepared; if potash water glass is used, instead of the soda composition, this induration takes place still more quickly.

IV.—Cement for Glass, Porcelain, etc.—

Isinglass (fish glue)

50 parts

Gum ammoniac

4 parts

Gum mastic

2 parts

Alcohol, 95 per cent

10 parts

Water, q. s.

Soak the isinglass in cold water over night, or until it has become swollen and soft throughout. In the morning throw off any superfluous fluid and throw the isinglass on a clean towel or other coarse cloth, and hang it up in such a way that any free residual water will drain away. Upon doing this thoroughly depends, in a great measure, the strength of the cement. When the gelatin has become thoroughly drained put it into a flask or other container, place it in the water bath and heat carefully until it becomes fluid, being careful not to let it come to a boil, as this injures its adhesive properties (the same may be said in regard to glues and gelatins of all kinds). Dissolve the gums in the alcohol and add the solution to the gelatin after removing the same from the water bath, and letting it cool down to about 160° F. Stir well together or mix by agitation.

The following precautions must be observed: 1. Both surfaces to be joined must be absolutely clean, free from dust, dirt, grease, etc. 2. Where the cement is one that requires the application of heat before use, the objects to be united should also be heated to a point at least as high as the melting point of the cement. Otherwise, the cement on application is chilled and consequently fails to make a lasting joint. 3. The thinner the layer of cement the stronger the joint; avoid, therefore, using too much of the binding material. Cover both surfaces to be united, coapt them exactly, and press together as closely as possible. In this manner the thinnest possible layer is secured. 4. Bind the parts securely together, and let remain without loosening or attempting to use the article for 2 or 3 days or longer. A liquid cement acquires its full strength only after evaporation of the fluids used as solvents, and this can occur only from the infinitesimal line of exposed surface.

V.—Liquid Porcelain Cement.—Fish glue, 20 parts; glass acetic acid, 20 parts; heat together until the mass gelatinizes on cooling.

VI.—Take 1 ounce of Russian isinglass, cut in small pieces, and bruise well; then add 6 ounces of warm water, and leave it in a warm place for from 24 to 48 hours. Evaporate the resulting solution to about 3 ounces. Next dissolve ¹/₂ ounce of mastic in 4 ounces of alcohol, and add the mastic solution to the isinglass in small quantities at a time, continuing the heat and stirring well. While still hot strain the liquid through muslin.

VII.—For optical glasses, Canada balsam is employed, the two pieces being firmly pressed together. After a while, especially by humidity, punctures will form, and the glass is separated by a mist of varying reflexes, while in certain climates the heat will melt the balsam. For all other glass articles which require only simple treatment, such as knobs of covers, plates, etc., silicate of potash is excellent.

VIII.—Glass Cement.—Dissolve in 150 parts of acetic acid of 96 per cent, 100 {29} parts of gelatin by the use of heat, and add ammonium bichromate, 5 parts. This glue must be kept away from the light.

IX.—

White glue

10 parts

Potassium bichromate

2 parts

Water

100 parts

The glue is dissolved in a portion of the water by the aid of heat, the bichromate in the remainder, and the liquids mixed, the mixing being done in a feebly lighted place, and the mixture is then kept in the dark. It is applied in feeble light, being reliquefied by gentle heat, and the glass, the fractured pieces being tightly clamped together, is then exposed to a strong light for some time. By this exposure the cement becomes insoluble. This is waterproof cement for glass.

X.—Diamond Glass Cement.—Dissolve 100 parts of fish glue in 150 parts of 90 per cent alcohol and add, with constant stirring, 200 parts of powdered rosin. This cement must be preserved in absolutely tight bottles, as it solidifies very quickly.

XI.—To unite objects of crystal dissolve 8 parts of caoutchouc and 100 parts of gum mastic in 600 parts of chloroform. Set aside, hermetically closed, for 8 days; then apply with a brush, cold.

XII.—To make a transparent cement for glass, digest together for a week in the cold 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic.

XIII.—A mixture of traumaticin, a solution of caoutchouc in chloroform, and a concentrated solution of water glass make a capital cement for uniting articles of glass. Not only is the joint very strong, but it is transparent. Neither changes of temperature nor moisture affect the cement.

XIV.—A transparent cement for porcelain is prepared by dissolving 75 parts of india rubber, cut into small pieces, in a bottle containing 60 parts chloroform; to this add 15 parts green mastic. Let the bottle stand in the cold until the ingredients have become thoroughly dissolved.

XV.—Some preparations resist the action of heat and moisture a short time, but generally yield very quickly. The following cement for glass has proven most resistant to liquids and heat:

Silver litharge

1,000 parts

White lead

50 parts

Boiled linseed oil

3 parts

Copal varnish

1 part

Mix the lead and litharge thoroughly, and the oil and copal in the same manner, and preserve separately. When needed for use, mix in the proportions indicated (150 parts of the powder to 4 parts of the liquid) and knead well together. Apply to the edges of the glass, bind the broken parts together, and let stand for from 24 to 48 hours.

XVI.—To reunite plaster articles dissolve small pieces of celluloid in ether; in a quarter of an hour decant, and use the pasty deposit which remains for smearing the edges of the articles. It dries rapidly and is insoluble in water.

XVII.—To Mend Wedgwood Mortars.—It is easy enough to mend mortars so that they may be used for making emulsions and other light work which does not tax their strength too much. But a mended mortar will hardly be able to stand the force required for powdering hard substances. A good cement for mending mortars is the following:

a.

—

Glass flour elutriated

10 parts

Fluorspar, powdered and elutriated

20 parts

Silicate of soda

60 parts

Both glass and fluorspar must be in the finest possible condition, which is best done by shaking each in fine powder, with water allowing the coarser particles to deposit, and then to pour off the remainder, which holds the finest particles in suspension. The mixture must be made very rapidly by quick stirring, and when thoroughly mixed must be at once applied. This is said to yield an excellent cement.

b.

—

Freshly burnt plaster of Paris

5 parts

Freshly burnt lime

1 part

White of egg, sufficient.

Reduce the first two ingredients to a very fine powder and mix them well; moisten the two surfaces to be united with a small quantity of white of egg to make them adhesive; then mix the powder very rapidly with the white of egg and apply the mixture to the broken surfaces. If they are large, two persons should do this, each applying the cement to one portion. The pieces are then firmly pressed together and left undisturbed for several days. The less cement is used the better will the articles hold together.

c.—If there is no objection to dark-colored cement, the very best that can be used is probably marine glue. This is made thus: Ten parts of caoutchouc or india rubber are dissolved in 120 parts of benzine or petroleum naphtha, with {30} the aid of a gentle heat. When the solution is complete, which sometimes requires from 10 to 14 days, 20 parts of asphalt are melted in an iron vessel and the caoutchouc solution is poured in very slowly in a fine stream and under continued heating, until the mass has become homogeneous and nearly all the solvent has been driven off. It is then poured out and cast into greased tin molds. It forms dark brown or black cakes, which are very hard to break. This cement requires considerable heat to melt it; and to prevent it from being burnt it is best to heat a capsule containing a piece of it first on a water bath until the cake softens and begins to be liquid. It is then carefully wiped dry and heated over a naked flame, under constant stirring, up to about 300° F. The edges of the article to be mended should, if possible, also be heated to at least 212° F., so as to permit the cement to be applied at leisure and with care. The thinner the cement is applied the better it binds.

Meerschaum Cements.

—I.—If the material is genuine (natural) meerschaum a lasting joint can be made between the parts by proceeding as follows: Clean a clove or two of garlic (the fresher the better) by removing all the outside hull of skin; throw into a little mortar and mash to a paste. Rub this paste over each surface to be united and join quickly. Bring the parts as closely together as possible and fasten in this position. Have ready some boiling fresh milk; place the article in it and continue the boiling for 30 minutes. Remove and let cool slowly. If properly done, this makes a joint that will stand any ordinary treatment, and is nearly invisible. For composition, use a cement made of quicklime, rubbed to a thick cream with egg albumen.

II.—Mix very fine meerschaum shavings with albumen or dissolve casein in water glass, stir finely powdered magnesia into the mass, and use the cement at once. This hardens quickly.

Asbestos Cement.

—Ground asbestos may be made into a cement which will stand a high degree of heat by simply mixing it with a solution of sodium silicate. By subsequent treatment with a solution of calcium chloride the mass may be made insoluble, silicate of calcium being formed.

A cement said to stand a high degree of heat and to be suitable for cementing glass, porcelain, or other vessels intended to hold corrosive acids, is this one:

I.—

Asbestos

2 parts

Barium sulphate

3 parts

Sodium silicate

2 parts

By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the strongest nitric acid will be obtained. If hot acids are dealt with, the following mixture will be found to possess still more resistant powers:

II.—

Sodium silicate

2 parts

Fine sand

1 part

Asbestos powder

1 part

Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to set at once, use potassium silicate instead of sodium silicate. This mixture will be instantly effective, and possesses the same power of resistance as the other.

Parisian Cement.

—Mix 1 part of finely ground glass powder, obtained by levigation, with 3 parts of finely powdered zinc oxide rendered perfectly free from carbonic acid by calcination. Besides prepare a solution of 1 part, by weight, of borax in a very small quantity of hot water and mix this with 50 parts of a highly concentrated zinc chloride solution of 1.5 to 1.6 specific gravity. As is well known the mixture of this powder with the liquid into a soft uniform paste is accomplished only immediately before use. The induration to a stonelike mass takes place within a few minutes, the admixture of borax retarding the solidification somewhat. The pure white color of the powder may be tinted with ocher, manganese, etc., according to the shade desired.

Strong Cement.

—Pour over well-washed and cleaned casein 12 ¹/₂ parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil. Boil. Stir actively and add a small amount of a saturated aqueous solution of alum; remove from the fire and set aside. After a while a milky looking fluid will separate and rise. This should be poured off. To the residue add 120 parts of rock candy syrup and 6 parts of dextrin.

A Cheap And Excellent Cement.

—A cheap and excellent cement, insoluble after drying in water, petroleum, oils, carbon disulphide, etc., very hard when dry and of very considerable tensile strength, is composed of casein and some tannic-acid compound, as, for instance, calcium tannate, and is prepared as follows:

First, a tannin solution is prepared either by dissolving a tannin salt, or by extraction from vegetable sources (as barks from certain trees, etc.), to which {31} is added clear lime water (obtained by filtering milk of lime, or by letting the milk stand until the lime subsides) until no further precipitation occurs, and red litmus paper plunged in the fluid is turned blue. The liquid is now separated from its precipitate, either by decantation or otherwise, and the precipitate is dried. In operating with large quantities of the substance, this is done by passing a stream of atmospheric air through the same. The lime tannate obtained thus is then mixed with casein in proportions running from 1:1 up to 1:10, and the mixture, thoroughly dried, is milled into the consistency of the finest powder. This powder has now only to be mixed with water to be ready for use, the consistency of the preparation depending upon the use to which it is to be put.

Universal Cement.

—Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 parts, by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the gum arabic in a little water; also dissolve the starch in a little water. Mix and add the sugar and camphor. Boil on the water bath until a paste is formed which, on coating, will thicken.

Cement For Ivory.

—Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and ordinary pitch. The pieces to be united have to be warmed.

Cement For Belts.

—Mix 50 parts, by weight, of fish glue with equal parts of whey and acetic acid. Then add 50 parts, by weight, of garlic in paste form and boil the whole on the water bath. At the same time make a solution of 100 parts, by weight, of gelatin in the same quantity of whey, and mix both liquids. To the whole add, finally, 50 parts, by weight, of 90-per-cent alcohol and, after filtration, a cement is obtained which can be readily applied with a brush and possesses extraordinary binding qualities.

Cement For Chemical Apparatus.

—Melt together 20 parts of gutta percha, 10 parts of yellow wax, and 30 parts of shellac.

Size Over Portland Cement.

—The best size to use on Portland cement molding for wall paper would ordinarily be glue and alum size put on thin and warm, made in proportion of ¹/₂ pound of glue and same weight of alum dissolved in separate pails, then poured together.

Aquarium Cements.—

I.—

Litharge

3 ounces

Fine white sand

3 ounces

Plaster of Paris

3 ounces

Rosin, in fine powder

1 ounce

Linseed oil, enough.

Drier, enough.

Mix the first three ingredients, add sufficient linseed oil to make a homogeneous paste, and then add a small quantity of drier. This should stand a few hours before it is used. It is said that glass joined to iron with this cement will break before it will come loose.

II.—

Litharge

1 ounce

Fine white sand

1 ounce

Plaster of Paris

1 ounce

Manganese borate

20 grains

Rosin, in fine powder

3 

¹

/

₂

pounds

Linseed varnish oil, enough.

III.—Take equal parts of flowers of sulphur, ammonium chloride, and iron filings, and mix thoroughly with boiled linseed oil. Finally, add enough white lead to form a thin paste.

IV.—

Powdered graphite

6 parts

Slaked lime

3 parts

Barium sulphate

8 parts

Linseed varnish oil

7 parts

V.—Simply mix equal parts of white and red lead with a little kettle-boiled linseed oil.

Substitute For Cement On Grinder Disks.

—A good substitute in place of glue or various kinds of cement for fastening emery cloth to the disks of grinders of the Gardner type is to heat or warm the disk and apply a thin coating of beeswax; then put the emery cloth in place and allow to set and cool under pressure.

Knockenplombe.

—If 1 part of thymol be mixed with 2 parts of iodoform we obtain a substance that retains its fluidity down to 72° C. (161.6° F.). If the temperature be carried down to 60° C. (140° F.) it suddenly becomes solid and hard. If, in its liquid condition, this substance be mixed intimately with an equal quantity of calcined bone, it forms a cement that can be molded or kneaded into any shape, that, at the temperature of the body (98° F.), becomes as hard as stone, a fact that suggests many useful purposes to which the mixture may be put.

Cement For General Use.

—Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 {32} parts by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the gum arabic in a little water. On the other hand, dissolve the starch also in some water. When this is done add the sugar and the camphor and put in a water bath. Boil until a paste is formed, which must be rather thin, because it will thicken on cooling.

Strong Cement.

—Pour over well-washed and cleaned casein 12 ¹/₂ parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil, put on the fire and bring to a boil; stir actively and add a small amount of a saturated aqueous solution of alum; remove from the fire and set aside. After standing a while a milky-looking fluid will separate at the bottom and rise to the top. This should be poured off and to the residue add 120 parts of rock-candy syrup and 6 parts of dextrine.

Syndeticon.

—I.—Slake 100 parts of burnt lime with 50 parts of water, pour off the supernatant water; next, dissolve 60 parts of lump sugar in 160 parts of water, add to the solution 15 parts of the slaked lime, heat to 70° or 80° C. (158° to 176° F.), and set aside, shaking frequently. Finally dissolve 50 to 60 parts of genuine Cologne glue in 250 parts of the clear solution.

II.—A solution of 10 parts gum arabic and 30 parts of sugar in 100 parts of soda water glass.

III.—A hot solution of 50 parts of Cologne glue in 60 parts of a 20-per-cent aqueous calcium-chloride solution.

IV.—A solution of 50 parts of Cologne glue in 60 parts of acetic acid.

V.—Soak isinglass (fish bladder) in acetic acid of 70 per cent until it swells up, then rub it up, adding a little water during the process.

“Shio Liao.”

—Under this name the Chinese manufacture an excellent cement which takes the place of glue, and with which gypsum, marble, porcelain, stone, and stoneware can be cemented. It consists of the following parts (by weight): Slaked powdered lime, 54 parts; powdered alum, 6 parts; and fresh, well-strained blood, 40 parts. These materials are stirred thoroughly until an intimately bound mass of the consistency of a more or less stiff salve is obtained. In paste form this mass is used as cement; in a liquid state it is employed for painting all sorts of articles which are to be rendered waterproof and durable. Cardboard covers, which are coated with it two or three times, become as hard as wood. The Chinese paint their houses with “shio liao” and glaze their barrels with it, in which they transport oil and other greasy substances.

Lutes.

Lutes always consist of a menstruum and dissolved or suspended solids, and they must not be attacked by the gases and liquids coming in contact with them. In some cases the constituents of the lute react to form a more strongly adhering mass.

• The conditions of application are, in brief:

  • (a) Heating the composition to make it plastic until firmly fixed in place.
  • (b) Heating the surfaces.
  • (c) Applying the lute with water or a volatile solvent, which is allowed to volatilize.
  • (d) Moistening the surfaces with water, oil, etc. (the menstruum of the lute itself).
  • (e) Applying the lute in workable condition and the setting taking place by chemical reactions.
  • (f) Setting by hydration.
  • (g) Setting by oxidation.

These principles will be found to cover nearly all cases.

Joints should not be ill-fitting, depending upon the lute to do what the pipes or other parts of the apparatus should do. In most cases one part of the fitting should overlap the other, so as to make a small amount of the lute effective and to keep the parts of the apparatus rigid, as a luted joint is not supposed to be a particularly strong one, but rather one quickly applied, effective while in place and easily removed.

Very moderate amounts of the lute should be used, as large amounts are likely to develop cracks, be rubbed off, etc.

• A classification may be given as follows:

  • (1) Plaster of Paris.
  • (2) Hydraulic cement.
  • (3) Clay.
  • (4) Lime.
  • (5) Asphalt and pitch.
  • (6) Rosin.
  • (7) Rubber.
  • (8) Linseed oil.
  • (9) Casein and albumen.
  • (10) Silicates of soda and oxychloride cements.
  • (11) Flour and starch.
  • (12) Miscellaneous, including core compounds.

I. Plaster of Paris is, of course, often used alone as a paste; which quickly {33} solidifies, for gas and wood distillation retorts, etc., and similar places where quickness of setting is requisite. It is more often, however, used with some fibrous material to give it greater strength. Asbestos is the most commonly used material of these, as it will stand a high temperature. When that is not so important, straw, plush trimmings, hair, etc., are used as binders, while broken stone, glass, and various mineral substances are used as fillers, but they do not add anything to the strength. These lutes seem to be particularly suitable for oil vapors and hydrocarbon gases.

• Formulas:

  • (1) Plaster and water.
  • (2) Plaster (wet) and asbestos.
  • (3) Plaster (wet) and straw.
  • (4) Plaster (wet) and plush trimmings.
  • (5) Plaster (wet) and hair.
  • (6) Plaster (wet) and broken stone, etc.

II. Hydraulic Cement.—Cement is used either alone or with sand, asbestos, etc. These lutes are suitable for nitric acid. When used with substances such as rosin or sulphur, cement is probably employed because it is in such a fine state of division and used as a filler and not because of any powers of setting by hydration.

• Formulas:

  • (1) Cement—neat.
  • (2) Cement and asbestos.
  • (3) Cement and sand.

III. Clay.—This most frequently enters into the composition of lutes as a filler, but even then the very finely divided condition of certain grades renders it valuable, as it gives body to a liquid, such as linseed oil, which, unless stiffened, would be pervious to a gas, the clay in all cases being neutral. Thus, for luting pipes carrying chlorine, a stiff paste of clay and molasses has been suggested by Theo. Köller in Die Surrogate, but it soon gives way.

• Formulas:

  • (1) Clay and linseed oil.
  • (2) Same, using fire clay.
  • (3) Clay and molasses.

(1) Is suitable for steam, etc.; (2) for chlorine, and (3) for oil vapors.

IV. Lime is used in the old lute known as putty, which consists of caustic lime and linseed oil. Frequently the lime is replaced by chalk and china clay, but the lime should be, in part at least, caustic, so as to form a certain amount of lime soap. Lime is also used in silicate and casein compositions, which are very strong and useful, but will be described elsewhere.

• Formulas:

  • (1) Lime and boiled oil to stiff mass.
  • (2) Clay, etc., boiled oil to stiff mass.

V. Asphalt and Pitch.—These substances are used in lutes somewhat interchangeably. As a rule, pitch makes the stronger lutes. Tar is sometimes used, but, because of the light oils and, frequently, water contained, it is not so good as either of the others.

Asphalt dissolved in benzol is very useful for uniting glass for photographic, microscopical, and other uses. Also for coating wood, concrete, etc., where the melted asphalt would be too thick to cover well. Benzol is the cheapest solvent that is satisfactory for this purpose, as the only one that is cheaper would be a petroleum naphtha, which does not dissolve all the constituents of the asphalt. For waterproofing wood, brick, concrete, etc., melted asphalt alone is much used, but when a little paraffine is added, it improves its waterproofing qualities, and in particular cases boiled oil is also added to advantage.

Formulas:

1.

Refined lake asphalt.

2.

Asphalt

4 parts

Paraffine

1 part

3.

Asphalt

10 parts

Paraffine

2 parts

Boiled oil

1 part

Any of these may be thinned with hot benzol or toluol. Toluol is less volatile than benzol and about as cheap, if not cheaper, the straw-colored grades being about 24 cents per gallon.

Examples of so-called “stone cement” are:

4.

Pitch

8 parts

Rosin

6 parts

Wax

1 part

Plaster

 ¹

/

₄

to

¹

/

₂

part

5.

Pitch

8 parts

Rosin

7 parts

Sulphur

2 parts

Stone powder

1 part

These compositions are used to unite slate slabs and stoneware for domestic, engineering, and chemical purposes. Various rosin and pitch mixtures are used for these purposes, and the proportions of these two ingredients are determined by the consistency desired. Sulphur and stone powder are added to prevent the formation of cracks, sulphur acting chemically and stone powder mechanically. {34} Where the lute would come in contact with acid or vapors of the same, limestone should not be the powder used, otherwise it is about the best. Wax is a useful ingredient to keep the composition from getting brittle with age.

A class of lutes under this general grouping that are much used are so-called “marine glues” (q. v.). They must be tough and elastic. When used for calking on a vessel they must expand and contract with the temperature and not crack or come loose.

Formulas:

6.

Pitch

3 parts

Shellac

2 parts

Pure crude rubber

1 part

7.

Pitch

1 part

Shellac

1 part

Rubber substitute

1 part

These are used by melting over a burner.

VI. Rosin, Shellac, and Wax.—A strong cement, used as a stone cement, is:

1.

Rosin

8 parts

Wax

1 part

Turpentine

1 part

It has little or no body, and is used in thin layers.

For nitric and hydrochloric acid vapors:

2.

Rosin

1 part

Sulphur

1 part

Fire clay

2 parts

Sulphur gives great hardness and permanency to rosin lutes, but this composition is somewhat brittle.

Good waterproof lutes of this class are:

3.

Rosin

1 part

Wax

1 part

Powdered stone

2 parts

4.

Shellac

5 parts

Wax

1 part

Turpentine

1 part

Chalk, etc.

8 to 10 parts

For a soft air-tight paste for ground-glass surfaces:

5.

Wax

1 part

Vaseline

1 part

6. A strong cement, without body, for metals (other than copper or alloys of same), porcelain, and glass is made by letting 1 part of finely powdered shellac stand with 10 parts of ammonia water until solution is effected.

VII. Rubber.—Because of its toughness, elasticity, and resistance to alterative influences, rubber is a very useful constituent in lutes, but its price makes its use very limited.

Leather Cement.

1.

Asphalt

1 part

Rosin

1 part

Gutta percha

4 parts

Carbon disulphide

20 parts

To stand acid vapors:

2.

Rubber

1 part

Linseed oil

3 parts

Fire clay

3 parts

3. Plain Rubber Cement.—Cut the crude rubber in small pieces and then add the solvent. Carbon disulphide is the best, benzol good and much cheaper, but gasoline is probably most extensively used because of its cheapness.

4. To make corks and wood impervious to steam and water, soak them in a rubber solution as above; if it is desired to protect them from oil vapors, use glue composition. (See Section IX.)

VIII. Linseed Oil.—This is one of the most generally useful substances we have for luting purposes, if absorbed by a porous substance that is inert.

Formulas: 1. China clay of general utility for aqueous vapors.

Linseed oil of general utility for aqueous vapors.

2. Lime forming the well-known putty.

Linseed oil forming the well-known putty.

3. Red or white lead and linseed oil.

These mixtures become very strong when set and are best diluted with powdered glass, clay, or graphite. There are almost an endless number of lutes using metallic oxides and linseed oil. A very good one, not getting as hard as those containing lead, is:

4. Oxide of iron and linseed oil.

IX. Casein, Albumen, and Glue.—These, if properly made, become very tough and tenacious; they stand moderate heat and oil vapors, but not acid vapors.

1.

Finely powdered casein

12 parts

Slaked lime (fresh)

50 parts

Fine sand

50 parts

Water to thick mush.

A very strong cement which stands moderate heat is the following:

2.

Casein in very fine powder

1 part

Rubbed up with silicate of soda

3 parts

A strong lute for general purposes, {35} which must be used promptly when made:

3. White of egg made into a paste with slaked lime.

A composition for soaking corks, wood, packing, etc., to render them impervious to oil vapors, is:

Gelatine or good glue

2 parts

Glycerine

 ¹

/

₂

to 1 part

Water

6 parts

Oil of wintergreen, etc., to keep from spoiling.

X. Silicate of Oxychloride Cements.—For oil vapors, standing the highest heat:

1. A stiff paste of silicate of soda and asbestos.

Gaskets for superheated steam, retorts, furnaces, etc.:

2. Silicate of soda and powdered glass; dry the mixture and heat.

Not so strong, however, as the following:

3.

Silicate of soda

50 parts

Asbestos

15 parts

Slaked lime

10 parts

Metal Cement:

4.

Silicate of soda

1 part

Oxides of metal, such as zinc oxide; litharge, iron oxide, singly or mixed

1 part

Very hard and extra strong compositions:

5.

Zinc oxide

2 parts

Zinc chloride

1 part

Water to make a paste.

6.

Magnesium oxide

2 parts

Magnesium chloride

1 part

Water to make a paste.

XI. Flour and Starch Compositions.—

1. The well-known flaxseed poultice sets very tough, but does not stand water or condensed steam.

2. Flour and molasses, made by making a stiff composition of the two. This is an excellent lute to have at hand at all times for emergency use, etc.

3. Stiff paste of flour and strong zinc-chloride solution forms a more impervious lute, and is more permanent as a cement. This is good for most purposes, at ordinary temperature, where it would not be in contact with nitric-acid vapors or condensing steam.

4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand makes a good composition, mainly used as core compound.

XII. Miscellaneous.—

1.

Litharge.

 

Glycerine.

Mixed to form a stiff paste, sets and becomes very hard and strong, and is very useful for inserting glass tubes, etc., in iron or brass.

For a high heat:

2.

Alumina

1 part

Sand

4 parts

Slaked lime

1 part

Borax

 ¹

/

₂

part

Water sufficient.

A class of mixtures that can be classified only according to their intended use are core compounds.

I.—

Dextrine, about

1 part

Sand, about

10 parts

With enough water to form a paste.

II.—Powdered anthracite coal, with molasses to form a stiff paste.

III.—

Rosin, partly saponified by soda lye

1 part

Flour

2 parts

Sand (with sufficient water)

4 parts

(These proportions are approximate and the amount of sand can be increased for some purposes.)

IV.—

Glue, powdered

1 part

Flour

4 parts

Sand (with sufficient water)

6 parts

For some purposes the following mixture is used. It does not seem to be a gasket or a core compound:

V.—

Oats (or wheat) ground

25 parts

Glue, powdered

6 parts

Sal ammoniac

1 part

Paper read by Samuel S. Sadtler before the Franklin Institute.

Pastes:

Dextrine Pastes.—

I.—

Borax, powdered

60 parts

Dextrine, light yellow

480 parts

Glucose

50 parts

Water

420 parts

By the aid of heat, dissolve the borax in the water and add the dextrine and glucose. Continue the heat, but do not let the mixture boil, and stir constantly until a homogeneous solution is obtained, from time to time renewing the water lost by evaporation with hot water. Finally, bring up to full weight (1,000 parts) by the addition of hot water, then strain through flannel. Prepared in this manner the paste remains bright and clear for a long time. It has extraordinary adhesive properties and dries very rapidly. If care is not taken to keep the cooking temperature below the boiling point of water, the paste is apt to become brown and to be very brittle on drying. {36}

II.—Dissolve in hot water a sufficient quantity of dextrine to bring it to the consistency of honey. This forms a strong adhesive paste that will keep a long time unchanged, if the water is not allowed to evaporate. Sheets of paper may be prepared for extempore labels by coating one side with the paste and allowing it to dry; by slightly wetting the gummed side, the label will adhere to glass. This paste is very useful in the office or laboratory.

III.—Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine 450 parts of soft water and stir the mixture for 10 minutes. After the dextrine has absorbed the water, put the mixture over the fire, or, preferably, on a water bath, and heat, with lively stirring for 5 minutes, or until it forms a light milk-like liquid, on the surface of which little bubbles begin to form and the liquid is apparently beginning to boil. Do not allow it to come to a boil. Remove from the fire and set in a bucket of cold water to cool off. When cold add to every 1,000 parts of the solution 51 parts glycerine and as much salicylic acid as will stand on the tip of a knife blade. If the solution is too thick, thin it with water that has been boiled and cooled off again. Do not add any more glycerine or the solution will never set.

IV.—Soften 175 parts of thick dextrine with cold water and 250 parts of boiling water added. Boil for 5 minutes and then add 30 parts of dilute acetic acid, 30 parts glycerine, and a drop or two of clove oil.

V.—Powder coarsely 400 parts dextrine and dissolve in 600 parts of water. Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glucose and heat to 90° C. (195° F.).

VI.—Stir 400 parts of dextrine with water and thin the mass with 200 parts more water, 20 parts glucose, and 10 parts aluminum sulphate. Heat the whole to 90° C. (195° F.) in the water bath until the whole mass becomes clear and liquid.

VII.—Warm 2 parts of dextrine, 5 parts of water, 1 part of acetic acid, 1 part of alcohol together, with occasional stirring until a complete solution is attained.

VIII.—Dissolve by the aid of heat 100 parts of builders’ glue in 200 parts of water add 2 parts of bleached shellac dissolved previously in 50 parts of alcohol. Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of dextrine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two solutions by stirring the second slowly into the first. Strain the mixture through a cloth into a shallow dish and let it harden. When needed cut off a piece of sufficient size and warm until it becomes liquid and if necessary or advisable thin with water.

IX.—Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with sufficient water to make a thick broth. Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25 parts of sodium water glass.

X.—Dissolve 5 parts of dextrine in water and add 1 part of alum.

Fastening Cork To Metal.

—In fastening cork to iron and brass, even when these are lacquered, a good sealing wax containing shellac will be found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax prepared with rosin is not suitable. The cork surface is painted with the melted sealing wax. The surface of the metal is heated with a spirit flame entirely free from soot, until the sealing wax melts when pressed upon the metallic surface. The wax is held in the flame until it burns, and it is then applied to the hot surface of the metal. The cork surface painted with sealing wax is now held in the flame, and as soon as the wax begins to melt the cork is pressed firmly on the metallic surface bearing the wax.

To Paste Celluloid On Wood, Tin, Or Leather.

—To attach celluloid to wood, tin, or leather, a mixture of 1 part of shellac, 1 part of spirit of camphor, 3 to 4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90°) is well adapted, in which 1 part of camphor is dissolved without heating in 7 parts of spirit of wine of 0.832 specific gravity, adding 2 parts of water.

To Paste Paper Signs On Metal Or Cloth.

—A piece of gutta percha of the same size as the label is laid under the latter and the whole is heated. If the heating cannot be accomplished by means of a spirit lamp the label should be ironed down under a protective cloth or paper in the same manner as woolen goods are pressed. This method is also very useful for attaching paper labels to minerals.

Paste For Fastening Leather, Oilcloth, Or Similar Stuff To Table Or Desk Tops, Etc.

—Use the same paste for leather as for oilcloth or other goods, but moisten the leather before applying the paste. Prepare the paste as follows: Mix 2 ¹/₄ pounds of good wheat flour with 2 ta­ble­spoon­fuls of pulverized gum arabic or powdered rosin and 2 ta­ble­spoon­fuls of pulverized alum in a clean dish with water enough to make a uniformly thick batter; set it over a slow fire and stir continuously until the paste is uniform and free from lumps. When the mass has become so stout that the wooden spoon or stick will stand in it {37} upright, it is taken from the fire and placed in another dish and covered so that no skin will form on top. When cold, the table or desk top, etc., is covered with a thin coat of the paste, the cloth, etc., carefully laid on and smoothed from the center toward the edges with a rolling pin. The trimming of edges is accomplished when the paste has dried. To smooth out the leather after pasting, a woolen cloth is of the best service.

To Paste Paper On Smooth Iron.

—Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight, of water; while stirring add 50 parts, by weight, of acetic acid, 50 parts alcohol, and 50 parts, by weight, of pulverized alum. The spot upon which it is desired to attach the paper must first be rubbed with a bit of fine emery paper.

Paste for Affixing Cloth to Metal.—

Starch

20 parts

Sugar

10 parts

Zinc chloride

1 part

Water

100 parts

Mix the ingredients and stir until a perfectly smooth liquid results entirely free from lumps, then warm gradually until the liquid thickens.

To Fix Paper upon Polished Metal.

—Dissolve 400 parts, by weight, of dextrine in 600 parts, by weight, of water; add to this 10 parts, by weight, of glucose, and heat almost to boiling.

Albumen Paste.

—Fresh egg albumen is recommended as a paste for affixing labels on bottles. It is said that labels put on with this substance, and well dried at the time, will not loosen even when bottles are put into water and left there for some time. Albumen, dry, is almost proof against mold or ferments. As to cost, it is but little if any higher than gum arabic, the white of one egg being sufficient to attach at least 100 medium-sized labels.

Paste For Parchment Paper.

—The best agent is made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax.

Medical Paste.

—As an adhesive agent for medicinal purposes Professor Reihl, of Leipsic, recommends the viscous substance contained in the white mistletoe. It is largely present in the berries and the bark of the plant; it is called viscin, and can be produced at one-tenth the price of caoutchouc. Solutions in benzine may be used like those of caoutchouc without causing any irritation if applied mixed with medicinal remedies to the skin.

Paste That Will Not Mold.

—Mix good white flour with cold water into a thick paste. Be sure to stir out all the lumps; then add boiling water, stirring all the time until thoroughly cooked. To 6 quarts of this add ¹/₂ pound light brown sugar and ¹/₄ ounce corrosive sublimate, dissolved in a little hot water. When the paste is cool add 1 drachm oil of lavender. This paste will keep for a long time.

Pasting Wood And Cardboard On Metal.

—In a little water dissolve 50 parts of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum. In another receptacle dissolve 75 parts of gum arabic in 2,000 parts of water. Into this gum-arabic solution pour 500 parts of flour, stirring constantly, and heat gradually to the boiling point. Mingle the solution first prepared with the second solution. It should be kept in mind that, owing to the lead acetate, this preparation is poisonous.

Agar Agar Paste.

—The agar agar is broken up small, wetted with water, and exposed in an earthenware vessel to the action of ozone pumped under pressure into the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus. About an hour of this bleaches the agar agar and makes it freely soluble in boiling water, when solutions far more concentrated than has hitherto been possible can be prepared. On cooling, the solutions assume a milky appearance, but form no lumps and are readily reliquefied by heating. If the solution is completely evaporated, as of course happens when the adhesive is allowed to dry after use, it leaves a firmly holding mass which is insoluble in cold water. Among the uses to which the preparation can be applied are the dressing of textile fabrics and paper sizing, and the production of photographic papers, as well as the ordinary uses of an adhesive.

Strongly Adhesive Paste.

—Four parts glue are soaked a few hours in 15 parts cold water, and moderately heated till the solution becomes perfectly clear, when 65 parts boiling water are added, while stirring. In another vessel 30 parts boiled starch are previously stirred together with 20 parts cold water, so that a thin, milky liquid without lumps results. The boiling glue solution is poured into this while stirring constantly, and the whole is kept boiling another 10 minutes.

Paste For Tissue Paper.—

(

a

)

Pulverized gum arabic

2 ounces

White sugar

4 drachms

Boiling water

3 fluidounces

(

b

)

Common laundry starch

1 

¹

/

₂

ounces

Cold water

3 fluidounces

Make into a batter and pour into

Boiling water

32 fluidounces

Mix (a) with (b), and keep in a wide-mouthed bottle.

Waterproof And Acidproof Pastes.—

I.—

Chromic acid

2 

¹

/

₂

parts

Stronger ammonia

15 parts

Sulphuric acid

 ¹

/

₂

part

Cuprammonium solution

30 parts

Fine white paper

4 parts

II.—

Isinglass, a sufficient quantity

Acetic acid

1 part

Water

7 parts

Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mixture of acetic acid and water to make a thin mucilage.

One of the solutions is applied to the surface of one sheet of paper and the other to the other sheet, and they are then pressed together.

III.—A fair knotting varnish free from surplus oil is by far the best adhesive for fixing labels, especially on metal surfaces. It dries instantly, insuring a speedy job and immediate packing, if needful, without fear of derangement. It has great tenacity, and is not only absolutely damp-proof itself, but is actually repellent of moisture, to which all water pastes are subject. It costs more, but the additional expense is often infinitesimal compared with the pleasure of a satisfactory result.

Balkan Paste.—

Pale glue

4 ounces

White loaf sugar

2 ounces

Powdered starch

1 ounce

White dextrine

 ¹

/

₄

pound

Pure glycerine

3 ounces

Carbolic acid

 ¹

/

₄

ounce

Boiling water

32 ounces

Cut up the glue and steep it in ¹/₂ pint boiling water; when softened melt in a saucepan; add sugar, starch, and dextrine, and lastly the glycerine, in which carbolic acid has been mixed; add remainder of water, and boil until it thickens. Pour into jars or bottles.

Permanent Paste.—

I.—

Wheat flour

1 pound

Water, cold

1 quart

Nitric acid

4 fluidrachms

Boric acid

40 grains

Oil of cloves

20 minims

Mix the flour, boric acid, and water, then strain the mixture; add the nitric acid, apply heat with constant stirring until the mixture thickens; when nearly cold add the oil of cloves. This paste will have a pleasant smell, will not attract flies, and can be thinned by the addition of cold water as needed.

II.—Dissolve 4 ounces alum in 4 quarts hot water. When cool add as much flour as will make it of the usual consistency; then stir into it ¹/₂ ounce powdered rosin; next add a little water in which a dozen cloves have been steeped; then boil it until thick as mush, stirring from the bottom all the time. Thin with warm water for use.

Preservatives For Paste.

—Various antiseptics are employed for the preservation of flour paste, mucilage, etc. Boric and salicylic acids, oil of cloves, oil of sassafras, and solution of formaldehyde are among those which have given best service. A durable starch paste is produced by adding some borax to the water used in making it. A paste from 10 parts (weight) starch to 100 parts (weight) water with 1 per cent borax added will keep many weeks, while without this addition it will sour after six days. In the case of a gluing material prepared from starch paste and joiners’ glue, borax has also demonstrated its preserving qualities. The solution is made by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch into a paste with water and adding 10 parts (weight) glue soaked in water to the hot solution; the addition of ¹/₁₀ part (weight) of borax to the solution will cause it to keep for weeks. It is equal to the best glue, but should be warmed and stirred before use.

Board-sizing.

—A cheap sizing for rough, weather-beaten boards may be made by dissolving shellac in sal soda and adding some heavy-bodied pigment. This size will stick to grease spots. Linseed oil may be added if desired. Limewater and linseed oil make a good heavy sizing, but hard to spread. They are usually used half and half, though these proportions may be varied somewhat.

Rice Paste.

—Mix the rice flour with cold water, and boil it over a gentle fire until it thickens. This paste is quite white and becomes transparent on drying. It is very adherent and of great use for many purposes.

Casein Paste.

—A solution of tannin, prepared from a bark or from commercial tannin, is precipitated with limewater, the lime being added until the solution just turns red litmus paper blue. The supernatant liquid is then decanted, {39} and the precipitate is dried without artificial heat. The resulting calcium tannate is then mixed, according to the purpose for which the adhesive is intended, with from 1 to 10 times its weight of dry casein by grinding in a mill. The adhesive compound is soluble in water, petroleum, oils, and carbon bisulphide. It is very strong, and is applied in the form of a paste with water.

Pastes For Paperhangers.

I.—Use a cheap grade of rye or wheat flour, mix thoroughly with cold water to about the consistency of dough, or a little thinner, being careful to remove all lumps; stir in a ta­ble­spoon­ful of powdered alum to a quart of flour, then pour in boiling water, stirring rapidly until the flour is thoroughly cooked. Let this cool before using, and thin with cold water.

• II.—Venetian Paste.—

  • (a)
    • 4 ounces white or fish glue
    • 8 fluidounces cold water
  • (b)
    • 2 fluidounces Venice turpentine
  • (c)
    • 1 pound rye flour
    • 16 fluidounces (1 pint) cold water
  • (d)
    • 64 fluidounces (¹/₂ gallon) boiling water

Soak the 4 ounces of glue in the cold water for 4 hours; dissolve on a water bath (glue pot), and while hot stir in the Venice turpentine. Make up (c) into a batter free from lumps and pour into (d). Stir briskly, and finally add the glue solution. This makes a very strong paste, and it will adhere to a painted surface, owing to the Venice turpentine in its composition.

• III.—Strong Adhesive Paste.—

  • (a)
    • 4 pounds rye flour
    •  ¹/₂ gallon cold water
  • (b)
    • 1 ¹/₂ gallons boiling water
  • (c)
    • 2 ounces pulverized rosin

Make (a) into a batter free from lumps; then pour into (b). Boil if necessary, and while hot stir in the pulverized rosin a little at a time. This paste is exceedingly strong, and will stick heavy wall paper or thin leather. If the paste be too thick, thin with a little hot water; never thin paste with cold water.

• IV.—Flour Paste.—

  • (a)
    • 2 pounds wheat flour
    • 32 fluidounces (1 quart) cold water
  • (b)
    • 1 ounce alum
    • 4 fluidounces hot water
  • (c)
    • 96 fluidounces (¹/₂ gallon) boiling water

Work the wheat flour into a batter free from lumps with the cold water. Dissolve the alum as designated in (b). Now stir in (a) and (c) and, if necessary, continue boiling until the paste thickens into a semitransparent mucilage, after which stir in solution (b). The above makes a very fine paste for wall paper.

• V.—Elastic or Pliable Paste.—

  • (a)
    • 4 ounces common starch
    • 2 ounces white dextrine
    • 10 fluidounces cold water
  • (b)
    • 1 ounce borax
    • 3 fluidounces glycerine
    • 64 fluidounces (¹/₂ gallon) boiling water

Beat to a batter the ingredients of (a). Dissolve the borax in the boiling water; then add the glycerine, after which pour (a) into solution (b). Stir until it becomes translucent. This paste will not crack, and, being very pliable, is used for paper, cloth, leather, and other material where flexibility is required.

VI.—A paste with which wall paper can be attached to wood or masonry, adhering to it firmly in spite of dampness, is prepared, as usual, of rye flour, to which, however, are added, after the boiling, 8 ¹/₃ parts, by weight, of good linseed-oil varnish and 8 ¹/₃ parts, by weight, of turpentine to every 500 parts, by weight.

VII.—Paste for Wall Paper.—Soak 18 pounds of bolus (bole) in water, after it has been beaten into small fragments, and pour off the supernatant water. Boil 10 ounces of glue into glue water, mix it well with the softened bolus and 2 pounds plaster of Paris and strain through a sieve by means of a brush. Thin the mass with water to the consistency of a thin paste. The paste is now ready for use. It is not only much cheaper than other varieties, but has the advantage over them of adhering better to whitewashed walls, and especially such as have been repeatedly coated over the old coatings which were not thoroughly removed. For hanging fine wall paper this paste is less commendable, as it forms a white color, with which the paper might easily become soiled if great care is not exercised in applying it. If the fine wall paper is mounted on ground paper, however, it can be recommended for pasting the ground paper on the wall.

Label Pastes:

Pastes To Affix Labels To Tin.

—Labels separate from tin because the paste becomes too dry. Some moisture is presumably always present; but more is required to cause continued adhesion in the case of tin than where the container is of {40} glass. Paste may be kept moist by the addition of calcium chloride, which is strongly hygroscopic, or of glycerine.

The following formulas for pastes of the type indicated were proposed by Leo Eliel:

I.—

Tragacanth

1 ounce

Acacia

4 ounces

Thymol

14 grains

Glycerine

4 ounces

Water, sufficient to make

2 pints

Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain, and add the glycerine, in which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it sufficiently for use.

II.—

Rye flour

8 ounces

Powdered acacia

1 ounce

Glycerine

2 ounces

Oil of cloves

40 drops

Rub the rye flour and acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of boiling water, and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.

III.—

Rye flour

5 parts

Venice turpentine

1 part

Liquid glue, a sufficient quantity

Rub up the flour with the turpentine and then add sufficient freshly prepared glue (glue or gelatine dissolved in water) to make a stiff paste. This paste dries slowly.

IV.—

Dextrine

2 parts

Acetic acid

1 part

Water

5 parts

Alcohol, 95 per cent.

1 part

Dissolve the dextrine and acetic acid in water by heating together in the water bath, and to the solution add the alcohol.

V.—

Dextrine

3 pounds

Borax

2 ounces

Glucose

5 drachms

Water

3 pints 2 ounces

Dissolve the borax in the water by warming, then add the dextrine and glucose, and continue to heat gently until dissolved.

Another variety is made by dissolving a cheap Ghatti gum in limewater, but it keeps badly.

VI.—Add tartaric acid to thick flour paste. The paste is to be boiled until quite thick, and the acid, previously dissolved in a little water, is added, the proportion being about 2 ounces to the pint of paste.

VII.—Gum arabic, 50 parts; glycerine, 10 parts; water, 30 parts; liq. Stibii chlorat., 2 parts.

VIII.—Boil rye flour and strong glue water into a mass to which are added, for 1,000 parts, good linseed-oil varnish 30 parts and oil of turpentine 30 parts. This mixture furnishes a gluing agent which, it is claimed, even renders the labels proof against being loosened by moisture.

IX.—Pour 140 parts of distilled cold water over 100 parts of gum arabic in a wide-necked bottle and dissolve by frequent shaking. To the solution, which is ready after standing for about 3 days, add 10 parts of glycerine; later, 20 parts of diluted acetic acid, and finally 6 parts of aluminum sulphate, then straining it through a fine-hair sieve.

X.—Good glue is said to be obtained by dissolving 1 part of powdered sugar in 4 parts of soda water glass.

XI.—A glue for bottle labels is prepared by dissolving borax in water; soak glue in this solution and dissolve the glue by boiling. Carefully drop as much acetic acid into the solution as will allow it to remain thin on cooling. Labels affixed with this agent adhere firmly and do not become moldy in damp cellars.

XII.—Dissolve some isinglass in acetic acid and brush the labels over with it. There will be no cause to complain of their coming off, nor of striking through the paper. Take a wide-mouthed bottle, fill about two-thirds with commercial acetic acid, and put in as much isinglass as the liquid will hold, and set aside in a warm place until completely dissolved. When cold it should form a jelly. To use it place the bottle in hot water. The cork should be well-fitting and smeared with vaseline or melted paraffine.

How To Paste Labels On Tin.

—Brush over the entire back of the label with a flour paste, fold the label loosely by sticking both ends together without creasing the center, and throw to one side until this process has been gone through with the whole lot. Then unfold each label and place it on the can in the regular manner. The paste ought not to be thicker than maple syrup. When of this consistency it soaks through the label and makes it pliable and in a condition to be easily rubbed into position. If the paste is too thick it dries quickly, and does not soak through the label sufficiently. After the labels have been placed upon the cans the latter must be {41} kept apart until dry. In putting the paste upon the labels in the first place, follow the method of placing the dry labels over one another, back sides up, with the edge of each just protruding over the edge of the one beneath it, so that the fingers may easily grasp the label after the pasting has been done.

Druggists’ Label Paste.

—This paste, when carefully made, is an admirable one for label use, and a very little will go a long way:

Wheat flour

4 ounces

Nitric acid

1 drachm

Boric acid

10 grains

Oil of cloves

5 drops

Carbolic acid

 ¹

/

₂

drachm

Stir flour and water together, mixing thoroughly, and add the other ingredients. After the stuff is well mixed, heat it, watching very carefully and removing the instant it stiffens.

To Attach Glass Labels To Bottles.

—Melt together 1 part of rosin and 2 parts of yellow wax, and use while warm.

Photographic Mountants (see also Photography).

—Owing to the nature of the different papers used for printing photographs, it is a matter of extreme importance to use a mountant that shall not set up decomposition in the coating of the print. For example, a mountant that exhibits acidity or alkalinity is injurious with most varieties of paper; and in photography the following formulas for pastes, mucilages, etc., have therefore been selected with regard to their absolute immunity from setting up decomposition in the print or changing its tone in any way. One of the usual mountants is rice starch or else rice water. The latter is boiled to a thick jelly, strained, and the strained mass used as an agglutinant for attaching photographic prints to the mounts. There is nothing of an injurious nature whatever in this mountant, neither is there in a mucilage made with gum dragon.

This gum (also called gum tragacanth) is usually in the form of curls (i.e., leaf gum), which take a long time to properly dissolve in water—several weeks, in fact—but during the past few years there has been put on the market a powdered gum dragon which does not occupy so many days in dissolving. To make a mucilage from gum dragon a very large volume of water is required. For example, 1 ounce of the gum, either leaf or powder, will swell up and convert 1 gallon of water into a thickish mucilage in the course of 2 or 3 weeks. Only cold water must be used, and before using the mucilage, all whitish lumps (which are particles of undissolved gum) should be picked out or else the mucilage strained. The time of solution can be considerably shortened (to a few hours) by acidifying the water in which the gum is placed with a little sulphuric or oxalic acid; but as the resultant mucilage would contain traces of their presence, such acids are not permissible when the gum-dragon mucilage is to be used for mounting photographs.

Glycerine and gum arabic make a very good adhesive of a fluid nature suited to mounting photographs; and although glycerine is hygroscopic by itself, such tendency to absorb moisture is checked by the reverse nature of the gum arabic; consequently an ideal fluid mucilage is produced. The proportions of the several ingredients are these:

Gum arabic, genuine

(gum acacia, not Bassora gum)

4 ounces

Boiling water

12 ounces

Glycerine, pure

1 ounce

First dissolve the gum in the water, and then stir in the glycerine, and allow all débris from the gum to deposit before using. The following adhesive compound is also one that is free from chemical reactions, and is suited for photographic purposes:

Water

2 pints

Gum dragon, powdered

1 ounce

Gum arabic, genuine

4 ounces

Glycerine

4 ounces

Mix the gum arabic with half the water, and in the remainder of the water dissolve the gum dragon. When both solids are dissolved, mix them together, and then stir in the glycerine.

The following paste will be found a useful mountant:

Gum arabic, genuine

1 ounce

Rice starch

1 ounce

White sugar

4 ounces

Water, q. s.

Dissolve the gum in just sufficient water to completely dissolve it, then add the sugar, and when that has completely dissolved stir in the starch paste, and then boil the mixture until the starch is properly cooked.

A very strong, stiff paste for fastening cardboard mounts to frames, wood, and other materials is prepared by making a bowl of starch paste in the usual way, and then adding 1 ounce of Venice turpentine per pound of paste, and {42} boiling and stirring the mixture until the thick turpentine has become well incorporated. Venice turpentine stirred into flour paste and boiled will also be found a very adhesive cement for fastening cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, and skiver leather to wood or metal; but owing to the resinous nature of the Venice turpentine, such pastes are not suitable for mounting photographic prints. The following half-dozen compounds are suitable mountants to use with silver prints:

Alcohol, absolute

10 ounces

Gelatine, good

1 ounce

Glycerine

 ¹

/

₂

to 1 ounce

Soak the gelatine in water for an hour or two until it is completely softened; take the gelatine out of the water, and allow it to drain, and put it into a bottle and pour alcohol over it; add the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only ¹/₂ ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up very well. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the prints from stretching or cockling, as they are apt to, under the influence of the gelatine.

In the following compound, however, only sufficient alcohol is used to serve as an antiseptic, and prevent the agglutinant from decomposing: Dissolve 4 ounces of photographic gelatine in 16 ounces of water (first soaking the gelatine therein for an hour or two until it is completely softened), then remove the gelatine from the water, allow it to drain, and put it into the bottle, and pour the alcohol over it, and put in the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only ¹/₂ ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up well and mix thoroughly. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the print from stretching or cockling up under the influence of the gelatine.

The following paste agglutinant is one that is very permanent and useful for all purposes required in a photographic studio: Take 5 pints of water, 10 ounces of arrowroot, 1 ounce of gelatine, and a ¹/₂ pint (10 fluidounces) of alcohol, and proceed to combine them as follows: Make arrowroot into a thick cream with a little of the water, and in the remainder of the water soak the gelatine for a few hours, after which melt the gelatine in the water by heating it, add the arrowroot paste, and bring the mixture to the boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5 minutes, then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol, adding a few drops of oil of cloves.

Perhaps one of the most useful compounds for photographic purposes is that prepared as follows: Soak 4 ounces of hard gelatine in 15 ounces of water for a few hours, then melt the gelatine by heating it in a glue pot until the solution is quite clear and free from lumps, stir in 65 fluidounces of cold water so that it is free from lumps, and pour in the boiling-hot solution of gelatine and continue stirring, and if the starch is not completely cooked, boil up the mixture for a few minutes until it “blows,” being careful to keep it well stirred so as not to burn; when cold add a few drops of carbolic acid or some essential oil as an antiseptic to prevent the compound from decomposing or becoming sour.

A useful photographic mucilage, which is very liquid, is obtained by mixing equal bulks of gum-arabic and gum-dragon mucilages of the same consistence. The mixture of these mucilages will be considerably thinner than either of them when alone.

As an agglutinant for general use in the studio, the following is recommended: Dissolve 2 ounces of gum arabic in 5 ounces of water, and for every 250 parts of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solution of sulphate of aluminum, prepared by dissolving 1 part of the sulphate in 20 parts of water (common alum should not be used, only the pure aluminum sulphate, because common alum is a mixture of sulphates, and usually contaminated with iron salts). The addition of the sulphate solution to the gum mucilage renders the latter less hygroscopic, and practically waterproof, besides being very adhesive to any materials, particularly those exhibiting a smooth surface.

Mucilages:

For Affixing Labels To Glass And Other Objects.

—I.—The mucilage is made by simply pouring over the gum enough water to a little more than cover it, and then, as the gum swells, adding more water from time to time in small portions, until the mucilage is brought to such consistency that it may be easily spread with the brush. The mucilage keeps fairly well without the addition of any antiseptic.

II.—

Tragacanth

1 ounce

Acacia

4 ounces

Thymol

14 grains

Glycerine

4 ounces

Water, sufficient to make

2 pints

{43}

Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain and add the glycerine, in which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it sufficiently for use.

III.—

Rye flour

8 ounces

Powdered acacia

1 ounce

Glycerine

2 ounces

Oil of cloves

40 drops

Water, a sufficient quantity.

Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of boiling water and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.

IV.—One part, by weight, of tragacanth, when mixed with 95-per-cent alcohol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a liquid in which a portion of the tragacanth is dissolved and the remainder suspended; this remains permanently fluid, never deteriorates, and can be used in place of the present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to each ounce of mixture is sufficient to suspend any of the insoluble substances usually given in mixtures.

V.—To 250 parts of gum-arabic mucilage add 20 parts of water and 2 parts of sulphate of alumina and heat until dissolved.

VI.—Dissolve ¹/₂ pound gum tragacanth, powdered, ¹/₄ pound gum arabic, powdered, cold water to the desired consistency, and add 40 drops carbolic acid.

Mucilage Of Acacia.

—Put the gum, which should be of the best kind, in a flask the size of which should be large enough to contain the mucilage with about one-fifth of its space to spare (i. e., the product should fill it about four-fifths full). Now tare, and wash the gum with distilled water, letting the latter drain away as much as possible before proceeding further. Add the requisite quantity of distilled water slowly, which, however, should first have added to it about 10 per cent of limewater. Now cork the flask, and lay it, without shaking, horizontally in a cool place and let it remain quietly for about 3 hours, then give it a half turn to the right without disturbing its horizontal position. Repeat this operation three or four times during the day, and keep it up until the gum is completely dissolved (which will not be until the fourth day probably), then strain through a thin cloth previously wet with distilled water, avoiding, in so doing, the formation of foam or bubbles. This precaution should also be observed in decantation of the percolate into smaller bottles provided with paraffine corks. The small amount of limewater, as will be understood, is added to the solvent water in order to prevent the action of free acid.

Commercial Mucilage.

—Dissolve ¹/₂ pound white glue in equal parts water and strong vinegar, and add ¹/₄ as much alcohol and ¹/₂ ounce alum dissolved in a little water. To proceed, first get good glue and soak in cold water until it swells and softens. Use pale vinegar. Pour off the cold water, then melt the glue to a thick paste in hot water, and add the vinegar hot. When a little cool add the alcohol and alum water.

To Render Gum Arabic More Adhesive.

—I.—Add crystallized aluminum sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved in 20 parts of water to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (75 parts of gum in 175 parts of water).

II.—Add to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (2 parts of gum in 5 parts of water) 2 parts of crystallized aluminum sulphate dissolved in 20 parts of water. This mixture glues even unsized paper, pasteboard on pasteboard, wood on wood, glass, porcelain, and other substances on which labels frequently do not adhere well.

Envelope Gum.

—The gum used by the United States Government on postage stamps is probably one of the best that could be used not only for envelopes but for labels as well. It will stick to almost any surface. Its composition is said to be the following:

Gum arabic

1 part

Starch

1 part

Sugar

4 parts

Water, sufficient to give the desired consistency.

The gum arabic is first dissolved in some water, the sugar added, then the starch, after which the mixture is boiled for a few minutes in order to dissolve the starch, after which it is thinned down to the desired consistency.

Cheaper envelope gums can be made by substituting dextrine for the gum arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding boric acid to preserve and help stiffen it.

Mucilage To Make Wood And Pasteboard Adhere To Metals.

—Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of lead acetate together with 5 parts, by weight, of alum in a little water. Make a separate solution of 75 parts, by weight, of gum arabic in 2,000 parts, by weight, of water, stir in this 500 {44} parts, by weight, of flour, and heat slowly to boiling, stirring the while. Let it cool somewhat, and mix with it the solution containing the lead acetate and alum, stirring them well together.

Preservation Of Gum Solution.

—Put a small piece of camphor in the mucilage bottle. Camphor vapors are generated which kill all the bacterial germs that have entered the bottle. The gum maintains its adhesiveness to the last drop.

ADULTERANTS IN FOODS: See Foods.

ADUROL DEVELOPER: See Photography.

ÆSCO-QUININE: See Horse Chestnut.

AGAR AGAR PASTE: See Adhesives.

AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL.

Prepare a mixture or frit of 33 parts of quartz sand, 65 parts calcium phosphate, and 2 parts of potash. The frit, which has been reduced by heat to the fusing point, is finely ground, intimately mingled with a small quantity of kaolin and pressed in molds which yield button-shaped masses. These masses, after having been fired, are given a transparent glaze by any of the well-known processes.

AGATE (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.

AGING OF SILK: See Silk.

AGING, SILVER AND GOLD: See Plating.

AIR BATH.

This air bath is employed in cases in which, upon drying or heating substances, acid vapors arise because the walls of the bath are not attacked by them. For the production of the drying apparatus take a flask with the bottom burst off or a bell jar tubulated above. This is placed either upon a sand bath or upon asbestos paper, previously laid upon a piece of sheet iron. The sand bath or the sheet iron is put on a tripod, so that it can be heated by means of a burner placed underneath. The substance to be dried is placed in a glass or porcelain dish, which is put under the bell jar, and if desired the drying dish may be hung on the tripod. For regulating the temperature the tubulure of the jar is closed with a pierced cork, through whose aperture the thermometer is thrust. In order to permit the vapors to escape, the cork is grooved lengthwise along the periphery.

AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE: See Gelatine.

AIR, EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLUTIONS: See Photography.

AIR-PURIFYING.

Ozonatine

is a fragrant air-purifying preparation consisting of dextrogyrate turpentine oil scented with slight quantities of fragrant oils.

ALABASTER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

ALBATA METAL: See Alloys.

ALBUMEN IN URINE, DETECTION OF.

Patein (Pharm. Zeit.) recommends the following test for albumen in urine: Dissolve 250 grams of citric acid in a sufficient quantity of water, add enough ammonia to neutralize, then 50 grams of alcohol, and finally enough water to make 1 liter. To the acid (or acidulated) urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammonium-citrate solution made as above is added, and the whole heated in the usual manner. The appearance of the faintest turbidity is said to indicate with positive certainty the presence of albumen.

ALBUMEN PAPER: See Photography.

ALBUMEN PASTE: See Adhesives.

ALCOHOL

After the manuscript of this book was ready for the press, Congress passed the bill which has since become a law, whereby the prohibitive tax on industrial or denatured alcohol is removed. So important is this legislative measure that the Editor has deemed it wise to insert an article on the sources of alcohol and the manufacture of alcohol from farm products. Because the first portion of the book was in type when this step was decided upon, the Editor was compelled to relegate to a later page a monograph which should properly have appeared here. The reader will find the matter on alcohol referred to under the heading {45} “Spirit”; likewise methods of denaturing and a list of denaturants.

ALCOHOL, DILUTION OF: See Tables.

Alcohol, Tests For Absolute.

—The committee for the compilation of the German Arzneibuch established the following tests for the determination of absolute alcohol:

Absolute alcohol is a clear, colorless, volatile, readily imflammable liquid which burns with a faintly luminous flame. Absolute alcohol has a peculiar odor, a burning taste, and does not affect litmus paper. Boiling point, 78.50. Specific gravity, 0.795 to 0.797. One hundred parts contain 99.7 to 99.4 parts, by volume, or 99.6 to 99.0 parts, by weight, of alcohol.

Absolute alcohol should have no foreign smell and should mix with water without cloudiness.

After the admixture of 5 drops of silver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not become turbid or colored even on heating.

A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic centimeter of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic centimeter should not exhibit an odor of fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute sulphuric acid.

Five cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, carefully covered, in a test tube, with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol, should not form a rose-colored zone at the surface of contact, even on standing for some time.

The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 1 cubic centimeter of potassium-permanganate solution should not pass into yellow before 20 minutes.

Absolute alcohol should not be dyed by hydrogen sulphide water or by aqueous ammonia.

Five cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not leave behind a weighable residue after evaporation on water bath.

Absolute Alcohol.

—If gelatine be suspended in ordinary alcohol it will absorb the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol, that substance will remain behind, and thus nearly absolute alcohol will be obtained without distillation.

Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol.—

East India lemon oil

1,250 parts

Mirbane oil

1,000 parts

Cassia oil

50 parts

Clove oil

75 parts

Lemon oil

100 parts

Amyl acetate

500 parts

Spirit (95 per cent)

7,000 parts

Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add the amyl acetate. The mixture serves for destroying the bad odor of denaturized spirit in distilling. Use 50 parts of the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit.

Solid Alcohol.

—I.—Heat 1,000 parts of denaturized alcohol (90 per cent) in a flask of double the capacity on the water bath to about 140° F., and then mix with 28 to 30 parts of well-dried, rasped Venetian soap and 2 parts of gum lac. After repeated shaking, complete dissolution will take place. The solution is put, while still warm, into metallic vessels, closing them up at once and allowing the mixture to cool therein. The admixture of gum lac effects a better preservation and also prevents the evaporation of the alcohol. On lighting the solid spirit the soap remains behind.

II.—Smaragdine is a trade name for solidified alcohol. It consists of alcohol and gun cotton, colored with malachite green. It appears in the market in the form of small cubes.

Alcohol In Fermented Beers.

—Experience has shown that ¹/₄ pound of sugar to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent of proof spirit, or about 1 per cent of absolute alcohol. Beyond this amount it is not safe to go, if the legal limit is to be observed, yet a ginger beer brewed with ¹/₄ pound per gallon of sugar would be a very wishy-washy compound, and there is little doubt that a much larger quantity is generally used. The more sugar that is used—up to 1 ¹/₂ or 1 ¹/₄ pounds per gallon—the better the drink will be and the more customers will relish it; but it will be as “strong” as lager and contain perhaps 5 per cent of alcohol, which will make it anything but a “temperance” drink. Any maker who is using as much as even ¹/₂ pound of sugar per gallon is bound to get more spirit than the law allows. Meanwhile it is scarcely accurate to term ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic.

Alcohol Deodorizer.—

Alcohol

160 ounces

Powdered quicklime

300 grains

Powdered alum

150 grains

Spirit of nitrous ether

1 

¹

/

₄

drachms

Mix the lime and alum intimately by trituration; add the alcohol and shake well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether; set aside for 7 days and filter through animal charcoal.

Denaturized Alcohol.

—There are two general classes or degrees of denaturizing, viz., the “complete” and the “incomplete,” according to the purpose for {46} which the alcohol so denaturized is to be ultimately used.

I.—Complete denaturization by the German system is accomplished by the addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26 ¹/₂ gallons) of spirits:

(a) Two and one-half liters of the “standard” denaturizer, made of 4 parts of wood alcohol, 1 part of pyridine (a nitrogenous base obtained by distilling bone oil or coal tar), with the addition of 50 grams to each liter of oil of lavender or rosemary.

(b) One and one-fourth liters of the above “standard” and 2 liters of benzol with every 100 liters of alcohol.

II.—Incomplete denaturization—i. e., sufficient to prevent alcohol from being drunk, but not to disqualify it from use for various special purposes, for which the wholly denaturized spirits would be unavailable—is accomplished by several methods as follows, the quantity and nature of each substance given being the prescribed dose for each 100 liters (26 ¹/₂ gallons) of spirits:

(c) Five liters of wood alcohol or ¹/₂ liter of pyridine.

(d) Twenty liters of solution of shellac, containing 1 part gum to 2 parts alcohol of 90-per-cent purity. Alcohol for the manufacture of celluloid and pegamoid is denaturized.

(e) By the addition of 1 kilogram of camphor or 2 liters oil of turpentine or ¹/₂ liter benzol to each 100 liters of spirits. Alcohol to be used in the manufacture of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white lead, bromo-silver gelatines, photographic papers and plates, electrode plates, collodion, salicylic acid and salts, aniline chemistry, and a great number of other purposes, is denaturized by the addition of—

(f) Ten liters sulphuric ether, or 1 part of benzol, or ¹/₂ part oil of turpentine, or 0.025 part of animal oil.

For the manufacture of varnishes and inks alcohol is denaturized by the addition of oil of turpentine or animal oil, and for the production of soda soaps by the addition of 1 kilogram of castor oil. Alcohol for the production of lanolin is prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to each hectoliter of spirits.

Ale.

The ale of the modern brewer is manufactured in several varieties, which are determined by the wants of the consumer and the particular market for which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East India, Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough fermentation, contain only a small quantity of undecomposed sugar and gum, varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly “hopped” or “bittered,” the further to promote their preservation during transit and change of temperature. Mild or sweet ales, on the contrary, are less accentuated by lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine and gummy matter. They are, therefore, more nutritious, though less intoxicating, than those previously referred to.

In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale malt and the best hops of the current season’s growth are always employed; and when it is desired to produce a liquor possessing little color, very great attention is paid to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conducted with more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and in warm weather, when a slight color is not objectionable, one-fifth, or even one-fourth of amber malt may be advantageously employed. From 4 ¹/₂ to 6 pounds of hops is the quantity commonly used to the one-fourth of malt, for ordinary ales; and 7 pounds to 10 pounds for “keeping” ales. The proportions, however, must greatly depend on the intended quality and description of the brewing and the period that will be allowed for its maturation.

The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8 per cent of “absolute alcohol”; ordinary strong ale, 4 ¹/₂ to 6 per cent; mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale, 1 to 1 ¹/₂ per cent (each by volume); together with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop, some acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and variable quantities of mineral and saline matter.

Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale), sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 pounds of crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse strainer and become lukewarm, is fermented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely bunged up for draft or is at once put into strong stoneware bottles, which are then well corked and wired.

White ale is said to be very nutritious, though apt to prove laxative to those {47} unaccustomed to its use. It is drunk in a state of effervescence or lively fermentation; the glass or cup containing it being kept in constant motion, when removed from the mouth, until the whole is consumed, in order that the thicker portion may not subside to the bottom.

ALE, GINGER: See Beverages.

ALFENIDE METAL: See Alloys.

ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT: See Soaps.

ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO: See Atropine.

ALLOYS

No general rules can be given for alloying metals. Alloys differing greatly in fusibility are commonly made by adding the more fusible ones, either in the melted state or in small portions at a time, to the other melted or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually effected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction and prevent volatilization and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus, in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown upon the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac; and in combining some metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Mercury or quicksilver combines with many metals in the cold, forming AMALGAMS, or easily fusible alloys (q. v.).

Alloys generally possess characteristics unshared by their component metals. Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which has a different density, hardness, and color from either of its constituents. Whether the metals tend to unite in atomic proportions or in any definite ratio is still undetermined. The evidence afforded by the natural alloys of gold and silver, and by the phenomena accompanying the cooling of several alloys from the state of fusion, goes far to prove that such is the case (Rudberg). The subject is, however, one of considerable difficulty, as metals and metallic compounds are generally soluble in each other, and unite by simple fusion and contact. That they do not combine indifferently with each other, but exercise a species of elective affinity not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly shown by the homogeneity and superior quality of many alloys in which the constituent metals are in atomic proportion. The variation of the specific gravity and melting points of alloys from the mean of those of their component metals also affords strong evidence of a chemical change having taken place. Thus, alloys generally melt at lower temperatures than their separate metals. They also usually possess more tenacity and hardness than the mean of their constituents.

Matthiessen found that when weights are suspended to spirals of hard-drawn wire made of copper, gold, or platinum, they become nearly straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal dimensions composed of copper-tin (12 per cent of tin), silver-platinum (36 per cent of platinum), and gold-copper (84 per cent of copper) scarcely undergo any permanent change in form when subjected to tension by the same weight.

The same chemist gives the following approximate results upon the tenacity of certain metals and wires hard-drawn through the same gauge (No. 23):

Pounds

Copper, breaking strain

25–30

Tin, breaking strain

under 7

Lead, breaking strain

under 7

Tin-lead (20% lead)

about 7

Tin-copper (12% copper)

about 7

Copper-tin (12% tin)

about 80–90

Gold (12% tin)

20–25

Gold-copper (8.4% copper)

70–75

Silver (8.4% copper)

45–50

Platinum (8.4% copper)

45–50

Silver-platinum (30% platinum)

75–80

On the other hand, the malleability, ductility, and power of resisting oxygen of alloys is generally diminished. The alloy formed of two brittle metals is always brittle; that of a brittle and a ductile metal, generally so; and even two ductile metals sometimes unite to form a brittle compound. The alloys formed of metals having different fusing points are usually malleable while cold and brittle while hot. The action of the air on alloys is generally less than on their simple metals, unless the former are heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely acted on at common temperatures; but at a red heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when strongly heated, decomposes both moist air and steam with rapidity.

The specific gravity of alloys is rarely {48} the arithmetical mean of that of their constituents, as commonly taught; and in many cases considerable condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong affinity between two metals, the density of their alloy is generally greater than the calculated mean; and vice versa, as may be seen in the following table:

• ALLOYS HAVING A DENSITY
  • Greater than the Mean of their Constituents:
    • Copper and bismuth,
    • Copper and palladium,
    • Copper and tin,
    • Copper and zinc,
    • Gold and antimony,
    • Gold and bismuth,
    • Gold and cobalt,
    • Gold and tin,
    • Gold and zinc,
    • Lead and antimony,
    • Palladium and bismuth,
    • Silver and antimony,
    • Silver and bismuth,
    • Silver and lead,
    • Silver and tin,
    • Silver and zinc.
  • Less than the Mean of their Constituents:
    • Gold and copper,
    • Gold and iridium,
    • Gold and iron,
    • Gold and lead,
    • Gold and nickel,
    • Gold and silver,
    • Iron and antimony,
    • Iron and bismuth,
    • Iron and lead,
    • Nickel and arsenic,
    • Silver and copper,
    • Tin and antimony,
    • Tin and lead,
    • Tin and palladium,
    • Zinc and antimony.

Compounding Alloys.

—Considerable experience is necessary to insure success in compounding alloys, especially when the metals employed vary greatly in fusibility and volatility. The following are rules supplied by an experienced workman:

1. Melt the least fusible, oxidizable, and volatile first, and then add the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. Thus, if it is desired to make an alloy of exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc, it will be impossible to do so by putting proportions of the metals in a crucible and exposing the whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly off in vapor before the copper was melted. First, melt the copper and add the zinc, which has been melted in another crucible. The zinc should be in excess, as some of it will be lost anyway.

2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc, copper and arsenic, may be formed by exposing heated plates of the least fusible metal to the vapor of the other. In making brass in the large way, thin plates of copper are dissolved, as it were, in melted zinc until the proper proportions have been obtained.

3. The surface of all oxidizable metals should be covered with some protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones, rosin for lead and tin, charcoal for zinc, copper, etc.

4. Stir the metal before casting and if possible, when casting, with a whitewood stick; this is much better for the purpose than an iron rod.

5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new. If the alloy is required to make sharp castings and strength is not a very great object, the proportion of old alloy to the new should be increased. In all cases a new or thoroughly well-cleansed crucible should be used.

To obtain metals and metallic alloys from their compounds, such as oxides, sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately patented makes use of the reducing qualities of aluminum or its alloys with magnesium. The finely powdered material (e. g., chromic oxide) is placed in a crucible mixed with aluminum oxide. The mixture is set afire by means of a soldering pipe or a burning magnesium wire, and the desired reaction takes place. For igniting, one may also employ with advantage a special priming cartridge consisting of pulverized aluminum to which a little magnesium may be mixed, and peroxide of magnesia, which is shaped into balls and lighted with a magnesium wire. By suitable additions to the pulverized mixture, alloys containing aluminum, magnetism, chromium, manganese, copper, iron, boron, silicic acid, etc., are obtained.

Aluminum Alloys.

M. H. Pecheux has contributed to the Comptes Rendus, from time to time, the results of his investigations into the alloys of aluminum with soft metals, and the following constitutes a brief summary of his observations:

Lead.

—When aluminum is melted and lead is added in proportion greater than 10 per cent, the metals separate on cooling into three layers—lead, aluminum, and between them an alloy containing from 90 to 97 per cent of aluminum. {49} The alloys with 93, 95, and 98 per cent have densities of 2.745, 2.674, and 2.600 respectively, and melting points near that of aluminum. Their color is like that of aluminum, but they are less lustrous. All are malleable, easily cut, softer than aluminum, and have a granular fracture. On remelting they become somewhat richer in lead, through a tendency to liquation. They do not oxidize in moist air, nor at their melting points. They are attacked in the cold by hydrochloric and by strong sulphuric acid, with evolution of hydrogen, and by strong nitric acid when hot; strong solution of potassium hydroxide also attacks them. They are without action on distilled water, whether cold or hot.

Zinc.

—Well-defined alloys were obtained, corresponding to the formulas Zn₃Al, Zn₂Al, ZnAl, ZnAl₂, ZnAl₃, ZnAl₄, ZnAl₆, ZnAl₁₀, ZnAl₁₂. Their melting points and densities all lie between those of zinc and aluminum, and those containing most zinc are the hardest. They are all dissolved by cold hydrochloric acid and by hot dilute nitric acid. Cold concentrated nitric acid attacks the first three, and cold dilute acid the first five. The Zn₃Al, ZnAl₆, ZnAl₁₀, and ZnAl₁₂ are only slightly affected by cold potassium-hydroxide solution; the others are strongly attacked, potassium zincate and aluminate probably being formed.

Tin.

—A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy plunged in cold water gives off for some minutes bubbles of gas, composed of hydrogen and oxygen in explosive proportions. An unfiled rod, or a filed rod of either aluminum or tin, is without action, though the unfiled rod of alloy will act on boiling water. The filed rod of alloy, in faintly acid solution of copper or zinc sulphate, becomes covered with a deposit of copper or zinc, while bubbles of oxygen are given off. M. Pecheux believes that the metals are truly alloyed only at the surface, and that filing lays bare an almost infinitely numerous series of junctions of the two metals, which, heated by the filing, act as thermocouples.

Bismuth.

—By the method used for lead, bismuth alloys were obtained containing 75, 85, 88, and 94 per cent of aluminum, with densities 2.86, 2.79, 2.78, and 2.74 respectively. They were sonorous, brittle, finely grained, and homogeneous, silver-white, and with melting points between those of their constituents, but nearer that of aluminum. They are not oxidized in air at the temperature of casting, but are readily attacked by acids, concentrated or dilute, and by potassium-hydroxide solution. The filed alloys behave like those of tin, but still more markedly.

Magnesium.

—These were obtained with 66, 68, 73, 77, and 85 per cent of aluminum, and densities 2.24, 2.47, 2.32, 2.37, 2.47. They are brittle, with large granular fracture, silver-white, file well, take a good polish, and have melting points near that of aluminum. Being viscous when melted, they are difficult to cast, and when slowly cooled form a gray, spongy mass which cannot be remelted. They do not oxidize in air at the ordinary temperatures, but burn readily at a bright-red heat. They are attacked violently by acids and by potassium-hydroxide solution, decompose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly decompose water even in the cold.

Tin, Bismuth, And Magnesium.

—The action of water on these alloys just referred to has been recently demonstrated on a larger scale, 5 to 6 cubic centimeters of hydrogen having been obtained in 20 minutes from 2 cubic centimeters of the filed tin alloy. The bismuth alloy yielded more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and the magnesium alloy more than the bismuth alloy. The oxygen of the decomposed water unites with the aluminum. Larger quantities of hydrogen are obtained from copper-sulphate solution, apart from the decomposition of this solution by precipitation of copper at the expense of the metal alloyed with the aluminum. The alloys of aluminum with zinc and lead do not decompose pure water, but do decompose the water of copper-sulphate solution, and, more slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution.

Aluminum is a metal whose properties are very materially influenced by a proportionately small addition of copper. Alloys of 99 per cent aluminum and 1 per cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish in color; 95 per cent of aluminum and 5 per cent of copper give an alloy which can be hammered, but with 10 percent of copper the metal can no longer be worked. With 80 per cent and upward of copper are obtained alloys of a beautiful yellow color, and these mixtures, containing from 5 to 10 percent of aluminum and from 90 to 95 per cent of copper, are the genuine aluminum bronzes. The 10-per-cent alloys are of a pure golden-yellow color; with 5 per cent of aluminum they are reddish yellow, like gold heavily alloyed with copper, and a 2-per-cent admixture is of an almost pure copper red. {50} As the proportion of copper increases, the brittleness is diminished, and alloys containing 10 per cent and less of aluminum can be used for industrial purposes, the best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and 10 of aluminum. The hardness of this alloy approaches that of the general bronzes, whence its name. It can be stretched out into thin sheets between rollers, worked under the hammer, and shaped as desired by beating or pressure, in powerful stamping presses. On account of its hardness it takes a fine polish, and its peculiar greenish-gold color resembles that of gold alloyed with copper and silver together.

Alloys with a still greater proportion of copper approach this metal more and more nearly in their character; the color of an alloy, for instance, composed of 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of aluminum, can be distinguished from pure gold only by direct comparison, and the metal is very hard, and also very malleable.

Electrical Conductivity Of Aluminum Alloys.

—During three years’ exposure to the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys in one test gradually diminished in conductivity in proportion to the amount of copper they contained. The nickel-copper aluminum alloys, which show such remarkably increased tensile strength as compared with good commercial aluminum, considerably diminished in total conductivity. On the other hand, the manganese-copper aluminum alloys suffered comparatively little diminution in total conductivity, and one of them retained comparatively high tensile strength. It was thought that an examination of the structure of these alloys by aid of microphotography might throw some light on the great difference which exists between some of their physical properties. For instance, a nickel-copper aluminum alloy has 1.6 times the tensile strength of ordinary commercial aluminum. Under a magnification of 800 diameters practically no structure could be discovered. Considering the remarkable crystalline structure exhibited by ordinary commercial aluminum near the surface of an ingot, when allowed to solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of structure in these alloys must be attributed to the process of drawing down. The inference is that the great difference which exists between their tensile strengths and other qualities is not due to variation in structure.

Colored Alloys Of Aluminum.

—A purple scintillating composition is produced by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22 parts aluminum. With platinum a gold-colored alloy is obtained; with palladium a copper-colored one; and with cobalt and nickel one of a yellow color. Easily fusible metals of the color of aluminum give white alloys. Metal difficult of fusion, such as iridium, osmium, titanium, etc., appear in abnormal tones of color through such alloyages.

Aluminum-brass.

—Aluminum, 1 per cent; specific gravity, 8.35; tensile strength, 40. Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific gravity, 8.33; tensile strength, 65. The last named is harder than the first.

Aluminum-copper.

—Minikin is principally aluminum with a small percentage of copper and nickel. It is alloyed by mixing the aluminum and copper, then adding the nickel. It resembles palladium and is very strong.

Aluminum-silver.

—I.—Silver, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. A handsome color.

II.—A silver aluminum that is easily worked into various articles contains about one-fourth silver and three-fourths of aluminum.

Aluminum-tin.

—Bourbon metal is composed of equal parts of aluminum and tin; it solders readily.

Aluminum-tungsten.

—A new metal alloy consisting of aluminum and tungsten is used of late in France in the construction of conveyances, especially carriages, bicycles, and motor vehicles. The French call it partinium; the composition of the new alloy varies according to the purposes for which it is used. It is considerably cheaper than aluminum, almost as light, and has a greater resistance. The strength is stated at 32 to 37 kilograms per square millimeter.

Aluminum-zinc.

—Zinc, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. Very ductile, white, and harder than aluminum.

AMALGAMS: See Fusible Alloys.

Anti-friction Bearing Or Babbitt Metals.

—These alloys are usually supported by bearings of brass, into which it is poured after they have been tinned, and heated and put together with an exact model of the axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being previously applied, in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mold. Soft gun metal is also excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all become less heated in working than the {51} harder metals, and less grease or oil is consequently required when they are used.

I.—An anti-friction metal of excellent quality and one that has been used with success is made as follows: 17 parts zinc; 1 part copper; 1 ¹/₂ parts antimony; prepared in the following way: Melt the copper in a small crucible, then add the antimony, and lastly the zinc, care being taken not to burn the zinc. Burning can be prevented by allowing the copper and antimony to cool slightly before adding the zinc. This metal is preferably cast into the shape desired and is not used as a lining metal because it requires too great a heat to pour. It machines nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing surfaces. It has the appearance of aluminum when finished. Use a lubricating oil made from any good grade of machine oil to which 3 parts of kerosene have been added.

II.—Copper, 6 parts; tin, 12 parts; lead, 150 parts; antimony, 30 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. For certain purposes the composition is modified as follows: Copper, 16 parts; tin, 40 parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony, 24 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. In both cases the wrought iron is cut up in small pieces, and in this state it will melt readily in fused copper and cast iron. After the mixture has been well stirred, the tin, lead, and antimony are added; these are previously melted in separate crucibles, and when mingled the whole mass is again stirred thoroughly. The product may then be run into ingots, to be employed when needed. When run into the molds the surface should be well skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes rapidly. The proportions may be varied without materially affecting the results.

III.—From tin, 16 to 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; fused together, and then blended with copper, 80 parts. Used where there is much friction or high velocity.

IV.—Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; copper, 20 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to violent shocks.

V.—Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to heat.

VI.—Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part.

VII.—(Fenton’s.) Tin, with some zinc, and a little copper.

VIII.—(Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or without a small portion of antimony or copper. Without the last it is apt to spread out under the weight of heavy machinery. Used for the bearings of locomotives, etc.

The following two compositions are for motor and dynamo shafts: 100 pounds tin; 10 pounds copper; 10 pounds antimony.

83 ¹/₂ pounds tin; 8 ¹/₄ pounds antimony; 8 ¹/₄ pounds copper.

IX.—Lead, 75 parts; antimony, 23 parts; tin, 2 parts.

X.—Magnolia Metal.—This is composed of 40 parts of lead, 7 ¹/₂ parts of antimony, 2 ¹/₂ of tin, ¹/₈ of bismuth, ¹/₈ of aluminum, and ¹/₄ of graphite. It is used as an anti-friction metal, and takes its name from its manufacturer’s mark, a magnolia flower.

ARGENTAN: See German Silver, under this title.

Bell Metal.

The composition of bell metal varies considerably, as may be seen below:

I.—(Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; fused together and cast. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition.

II.—(Founder’s Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts. Slightly paler and inferior to No. I.

III.—Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, etc.

IV.—Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, etc.

V.—Copper, 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 25 (= 1) part. Somewhat brittle. In fracture, semivitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large bells.

VI.—Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10 ¹/₄ parts; zinc, 5 ¹/₂ parts; lead, 4 ¹/₄ parts. English bell metal, according to Thomson. Inferior to the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of the alloy.

VII.—Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts. Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash-gray. Best proportions for house bells, hand bells, etc.; for which, however, 2 of copper and 1 of tin is commonly substituted by the founders.

VIII.—Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 ¹/₂ parts; iron, 1 ¹/₂ parts. Used by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks.

IX.—Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small bells.

X.—Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; {52} zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeating watches.

XI.—Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the required object, it should be made red-hot, and then plunged immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs.

XII.—Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be hammered out with frequent annealing.

XIII.—Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; This is superior to the former, and it can be rolled out. For tam-tams and gongs.

XIV.—Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron ¹/₄₄ part. Used in making the bells of ornamental French clocks.

Castings in bell metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent, have a color varying from a dark ash-gray to grayish-white, which is darkest in the more cuprous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their tones sharper. Bismuth and lead are also often used to modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crystalline grain to the alloy. All these conditions are, however, prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence M. D’Arcet recommends that the “pieces” be heated to a cherry-red after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, that they be submitted to well-regulated pressure by skillful hammering, until they assume their proper form; after which they are to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, etc., a casing of sheet iron being employed by them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use commercially pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; while that of silver increases it.

The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform through its whole substance; nor can the specific gravity from any given portion of its constituent metals be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or, in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer-toned will be the bell. In general, it is found necessary to take about one-tenth more metal than the weight of the intended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the operations of fusing and casting.

Bismuth Alloys.

Bismuth possesses the unusual quality of expanding in cooling. It is, therefore, introduced in many alloys to reduce or check shrinkage in the mold.

For delicate castings, and for taking impressions from dies, medals, etc., various bismuth alloys are in use, whose composition corresponds to the following figures:

I

II

III

IV

Bismuth

6

5

2

8

Tin

3

2

1

3

Lead

13

3

1

5

V.—Cliché Metal.—This alloy is composed of tin, 48 parts; lead, 32.5; bismuth, 9; and antimony, 10.5. It is especially well adapted to dabbing rollers for printing cotton goods, and as it possesses a considerable degree of hardness, it wears well.

VI.—For filling out defective places in metallic castings, an alloy of bismuth 1 part, antimony 3, lead 8, can be advantageously used.

VII.—For Cementing Glass.—Most of the cements in ordinary use are dissolved, or at least softened, by petroleum. An alloy of lead 3 parts, tin 2, bismuth 2.5, melting at 212° F., is not affected by petroleum, and is therefore very useful for cementing lamps made of metal and glass combined.

LIPOWITZ’S BISMUTH ALLOY: See Cadmium Alloys.

Brass.

In general brass is composed of two-thirds copper and one-third zinc, but a little lead or tin is sometimes advantageous, as the following:

I.—Red copper, 66 parts; zinc, 34 parts; lead, 1 part.

II.—Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part.

III.—Copper, 64.5 parts; zinc, 33.5 parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 0.5 part.

Brass-aluminum.

—A small addition of aluminum to brass (1.5 to 8 per cent) {53} greatly increases its hardness and elasticity, and this alloy is also easily worked for any purpose. Brass containing 8 per cent of aluminum has the valuable property of being but slightly affected by acids or gases. A larger percentage of aluminum makes the brass brittle. It is to be noted that aluminum brass decreases very materially in volume in casting, and the casts must be cooled slowly or they will be brittle. It is an alloy easily made, and its low price, combined with its excellent qualities, would seem to make it in many cases an advantageous substitute for the expensive phosphorous bronze.

Bristol Brass (Prince’s Metal).

—This alloy, which possesses properties similar to those of French brass, is prepared in the following proportions:

I

II

III

Copper

75.7

67.2

60.8

Zinc

24.3

32.8

39.2

Particular care is required to prevent the zinc from evaporating during the fusing, and for this purpose it is customary to put only half of it into the first melting, and to add the remainder when the first mass is liquefied.

Brass-iron (Aich’s Metal).

—This is a variety of brass with an admixture of iron, which gives it a considerable degree of tenacity. It is especially adapted for purposes which require a hard and, at the same time, tenacious metal. Analyses of the various kinds of this metal show considerable variation in the proportions. Even the amount of iron, to which the hardening effect must be attributed, may vary within wide limits without materially modifying the tenacity which is the essential characteristic of this alloy.

I.—The best variety of Aich’s metal consists of copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.8. The predominating quality of this alloy is its hardness, which is claimed to be not inferior to that of certain kinds of steel. It has a beautiful golden-yellow color, and is said not to oxidize easily, a valuable property for articles exposed to the action of air and water.

II.—Copper, 60.2 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.6. The permissible variations in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 3 per cent.

Sterro metal may properly be considered in connection with Aich’s metal, since its constituents are the same and its properties very similar. The principal difference between the two metals is that sterro metal contains a much larger amount of iron. The composition of this alloy varies considerably with different manufacturers.

III.—Two varieties of excellent quality are the product of the Rosthorn factory, in Lower Austria—copper, 55.33 parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66. Also

IV.—English sterro metal (Gedge’s alloy for ship sheathing), copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.125; iron, 1.5.

The great value of this alloy lies in its strength, which is equaled only by that of the best steel. As an illustration of this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the enormous pressure of 763 atmospheres without cracking. Besides its remarkable strength, it possesses a high degree of elasticity, and is, therefore, particularly suitable for purposes which require the combination of these two qualities, such as the construction of hydraulic cylinders. It is well known that these cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to sweat, that is, the interior pressure is so great that the water permeates through the pores of the steel. With a sterro metal cylinder, the pressure can be considerably increased without any moisture being perceptible on the outside of the cylinder.

Sterro metal can be made even more hard and dense, if required for special purposes, but this is effected rather by mechanical manipulation than by any change in the chemical composition. If rolled or hammered in heat, its strength is increased, and it acquires, in addition, an exceedingly high degree of tenacity. Special care must be taken, however, in hammering not to overheat the metal, as in this case it would become brittle and might crack under the hammer. Sterro metal is especially suitable for all the purposes for which the so-called red metal has been in the past almost exclusively used. Axle bearings, for example, made of sterro metal have such excellent qualities that many machine factories are now using this material entirely for the purpose.

Cast Brass.

—The various articles of bronze, so called, statuettes, clock cases, etc., made in France, where this industry has attained great perfection and extensive proportions, are not, in many cases, genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. Following are the compositions of a few mixtures of metals most frequently used by French manufacturers:

Copper

Zinc

Tin

Lead

I

63.70

33.55

2.50

0.25

II

64.45

32.44

0.25

2.86

III

70.90

24.05

2.00

3.05

IV

72.43

22.75

1.87

2.95

{54}

Their special advantage is that they can be readily cast, worked with file and chisel, and easily gilded.

To Cast Yellow Brass.

—If good, clean, yellow brass sand castings are desired, the brass should not contain over 30 per cent of zinc. This will assure an alloy of good color and one which will run free and clean. Tin or lead may be added without affecting the property of casting clean. A mixture of 7 pounds of copper, 3 pounds of spelter, 4 ounces of tin, and 3 ounces of lead makes a good casting alloy and one which will cut free and is strong. If a stronger alloy be desired, more tin may be added, but 4 ounces is usually sufficient. If the alloy be too hard, reduce the proportion of tin.

Leaf Brass.

—This alloy is also called Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts; zinc, 15.5 to 22.25. Its color is pale or bright yellow or greenish, according to the proportions of the metals. It has an unusual degree of ductility.

Malleable Brass.

—This metal is affected less by sea water than pure copper, and was formerly much used for ship sheathing, and for making nails and rivets which were to come in contact with sea water. At the present day it has lost much of its importance, since all the larger ships are made of steel. It is usually composed of copper, 60 to 62 parts; and zinc, 40 to 38 parts. It is sometimes called yellow metal, or Müntz metal (called after its inventor), and is prepared with certain precautions, directed toward obtaining as fine a grain as possible, experience having shown that only a fine-grained alloy of uniform density can resist the action of the sea water evenly. A metal of uneven density will wear in holes. To obtain as uniform a grain as possible, small samples taken from the fused mass are cooled quickly and examined as to fracture. If they do not show the desired uniform grain, some zinc is added to the mass. After it has permeated the whole mass, a fresh sample is taken and tested, this being continued until the desired result is reached. It is scarcely necessary to remark that considerable experience is required to tell the correct composition of the alloy from the fracture. The mass is finally poured into molds and rolled cold. Malleable brass can be worked warm, like iron, being ductile in heat, a valuable quality.

Experiments with malleable brass show that all alloys containing up to 58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67 per cent of zinc are malleable. There is, in addition, a second group of such alloys, with 61.54 per cent of copper and 38.46 per cent of zinc, which are also malleable in heat.

The preparation of these alloys requires considerable experience, and is best accomplished by melting the metals together in the usual manner, and heating the fused mass as strongly as possible. It must be covered with a layer of charcoal dust to prevent oxidation of the zinc. The mass becomes thinly fluid, and an intimate mixture of the constituents is effected. Small pieces of the same alloy are thrown into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a reflecting surface, when it is cast into ingots in iron molds. The ingots are plunged into water while still red-hot, and acquire by this treatment a very high degree of ductility. The alloy, properly prepared, has a fibrous fracture and a reddish-yellow color.

Sheet Brass

(For Sheet and Wire).—In the preparation of brass for the manufacture of wire, an especially pure quality of copper must be used; without this, all efforts to produce a suitable quality of brass will be in vain. That pure copper is indispensable to the manufacture of good, ductile brass may be seen from the great difference in the composition of the various kinds, all of which answer their purpose, but contain widely varying quantities of copper and zinc. The following table shows the composition of some excellent qualities of brass suitable for making sheet and wire:

Brass Sheet—Source

Copper

Zinc

Lead

Tin

Jemappes

64.6

33.7

1.4

0.2

Stolberg

64.8

32.8

2.0

0.4

Romilly

70.1

29.26

0.38

0.17

Rosthorn (Vienna)

68.1

31.9

—

—

Rosthorn (Vienna)

71.5

28.5

—

—

Rosthorn (Vienna)

71.1

27.6

1.3

—

Iserlohn & Romilly

70.1

29.9

—

—

Lüdenscheid

72.73

27.27

—

—

(Brittle)

63.66

33.02

2.52

—

Hegermühl

70.16

27.45

0.79

0.20

Oker

68.98

29.54

0.97

—

Brass Wire—

England

70.29

29.26

0.28

0.17

Augsburg

71.89

27.63

0.85

—

Neustadt

70.16

27.45

0.2

0.79

Neustadt

71.36

28.15

—

—

Neustadt

71.5

28.5

—

—

Neustadt

71.0

27.6

—

—

(Good quality)

65.4

34.6

—

—

(Brittle)

65.5

32.4

2.1

—

For wire and sheet

67.0

32.0

0.5

0.5

{55}

As the above figures show, the percentage of zinc in the different kinds of brass lies between 27 and 34. Recently, alloys containing a somewhat larger quantity of zinc have been used, it having been found that the toughness and ductility of the brass are increased thereby, without injury to its tenacity. Alloys containing up to 37 per cent of zinc possess a high degree of ductility in the cold, and are well adapted for wire and sheet.

Gilders’ Sheet Brass.

—Copper, 1 part; zinc, 1 part; tin, ¹/₁₀ part; lead, ¹/₁₀ part. Very readily fusible and very dense.

White Brass.

—Birmingham platina is an alloy of a pure white, almost silver-white color, remaining unaffected by tolerably long exposure to the atmosphere. Unfortunately this alloy is so brittle that it can rarely be shaped except by casting. It is used only in the manufacture of buttons. The alloy is poured into molds giving rather sharp impressions and allowing the design on the button (letters or coat of arms) to stand out prominently with careful stamping. The composition of this alloy, also known by the name of platinum lead, is as follows:

I

II

Copper

46.5

4

Zinc

53.5

16

III.—Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 10 parts; iron, 10 parts.

Britannia Metal.

Britannia metal is an alloy consisting principally of tin and antimony. Many varieties contain only these two metals, and may be considered simply as tin hardened with antimony, while others contain, in addition, certain quantities of copper, sometimes lead, and occasionally, though rarely on account of its cost, bismuth. Britannia metal is always of a silvery-white color, with a bluish tinge, and its hardness makes it capable of taking a high polish, which is not lost through exposure to the air. Ninety per cent of tin and 10 per cent of antimony gives a composition which is the best for many purposes, especially for casting, as it fills out the molds well, and is readily fusible. In some cases, where articles made from it are to be subjected to constant wear, a harder alloy is required. In the proportions given above, the metal is indeed much harder than tin, but would still soon give way under usage.

A table is appended, giving the composition of some of the varieties of Britannia metal and their special names.

Tin

Antimony

Copper

Zinc

Lead

English

81.90

16.25

1.84

—

—

English

90.62

7.81

1.46

—

—

English

90.1

6.3

3.1

0.5

—

English

85.4

9.66

0.81

3.06

—

Pewter

81.2

5.7

1.60

—

11.5

Pewter

89.3

7.6

1.8

—

1.8

Tutania

91.4

—

0.7

0.3

7.6

Queen’s metal

88.5

7.1

3.5

0.9

—

German

72.0

24.0

4.0

—

—

German

84.0

9.0

2.0

5.0

—

German (for casting)

20.0

64.0

10.0

6.0

—

Malleable (for casting)

48.0

—

3.0

48.0

1.0

Britannia metal is prepared by melting the copper alone first, then adding a part of the tin and the whole of the antimony. The heat can then be quickly moderated, as the melting point of the new alloy is much lower than that of copper. Finally, the rest of the tin is added, and the mixture stirred constantly for some time to make it thoroughly homogeneous.

An alloy which bears a resemblance to Britannia metal is Ashberry metal, for which there are two formulas.

I

II

Copper

2

3

Tin

8

79

Antimony

14

15

Zinc

1

2

Nickel

2

1

Bronzes.

The composition of bronze must be effected immediately before the casting, for bronze cannot be kept in store ready prepared. In forming the alloy, the refractory compound, copper, is first melted separately, the other metals, tin, zinc, etc., previously heated, being then added; the whole is then stirred and the casting carried out without loss of time. The process of forming the alloy must be effected quickly, so that there may be no loss of zinc, tin, or lead through oxidation, and also no interruption to the flow of metal, as metal added after an interval of time will not combine perfectly with the metal already poured in. It is important, therefore, to ascertain the specific weights of the metals, for the heavier metal will naturally tend to sink to the bottom and the lighter to collect at the top. Only in this way, and by vigorous stirring, can the complete blending of the two metals be secured. In adding the zinc, great care {56} must be taken that the latter sinks at once to the level of the copper, otherwise a considerable portion will be volatilized before reaching the copper. When the castings are made, they must be cooled as quickly as possible, for the components of bronze have a tendency to form separate alloys of various composition, thus producing the so-called tin spots. This is much more likely to occur with a slow than with a sudden cooling of the mass.

Annealing Bronze.

—This process is more particularly employed in the preparation of alloys used in the manufacture of cymbals, gongs, bells, etc. The alloy is naturally brittle, and acquires the properties essential to the purpose for which it is intended only after casting. The instruments are plunged into cold water while red-hot, hammered, reheated, and slowly cooled, when they become soft and sonorous. The alloy of copper and tin has the peculiar property that, whereas steel becomes hard through cooling, this mixture, when cooled suddenly, becomes noticeably soft and more malleable. The alloy is heated to a dark-red heat, or, in the case of thin articles, to the melting point of lead, and then plunged in cold water. The alloy may be hammered without splitting or breaking.

Aluminum Bronze.

—This is prepared by melting the finest copper in a crucible, and adding the aluminum. The copper is cooled thereby to the thickly fluid point, but at the moment of the combination of the two metals, so much heat is released that the alloy becomes white hot and thinly fluid. Aluminum bronze thus prepared is usually brittle, and acquires its best qualities only after having been remelted several times. It may be remarked that, in order to obtain a bronze of the best quality, only the very purest copper must be used; with an inferior quality of copper, all labor is wasted. Aluminum bronze is not affected by exposure to the air; and its beautiful color makes it very suitable for manufacturing various ornamental articles, including clock cases, door knobs, etc.

Aluminum bronze wire is almost as strong as good steel wire, and castings made from it are almost as hard as steely iron; its resistance to bending or sagging is great.

I.—A good formula is 90 to 95 per cent of aluminum and 5 to 10 per cent of copper, of golden color, which keeps well in the air, without soon becoming dull and changing color like pure copper and its alloys with tin and zinc (bronze, brass, etc.). It can be cast excellently, can be filed well and turned, possesses an extraordinary hardness and firmness, and attains a high degree of polish; it is malleable and forgeable. On the latter quality are founded applications which were formerly never thought of, viz.: forged works of art for decorative purposes. An alloy of 95 parts aluminum and 5 parts copper is used here. The technical working of bronze is not materially different from that of iron. The metal, especially in a hot condition, is worked like iron on the anvil, with hammer and chisel, only that the temperature to be maintained in forging lies between dark and light cherry red. If the articles are not forged in one piece and the putting together of the separate parts becomes necessary, riveting or soldering has to be resorted to. Besides forging, aluminum bronze is well suited for embossing, which is not surprising considering the high percentage of copper. After finishing the pieces, the metal can be toned in manifold ways by treatment with acid.

II.—Copper, 89 to 98 per cent; aluminum and nickel, 1 to 2 per cent. Aluminum and nickel change in the opposite way, that is to say, in increasing the percentage of nickel the amount of aluminum is decreased by the equal quantity. It should be borne in mind that the best ratio is aluminum, 9.5 per cent; nickel, 1 to 1.5 per cent at most. In preparing the alloy a deoxidizing agent is added, viz., phosphorus to 0.5 per cent; magnesium to 1.5 per cent. The phosphorus should always be added in the form of phosphorous copper or phosphor aluminum of exactly determined percentage. It is first added to the copper, then the aluminum and the nickel, and finally the magnesium, the last named at the moment of liquidity, are admixed.

III.—A gold bronze, containing 3 to 5 per cent aluminum; specific gravity, 8.37 to 8.15. Handsome golden color. This alloy oxidizes less on heating than copper and iron, and is therefore especially adapted for locomotive fireboxes and spindles, etc.

IV.—A steel bronze containing on an average 8.5 per cent aluminum (including 1 per cent silicium); specific gravity, 7.7. Very ductile and tough, but slightly elastic; hence its use is excluded where, with large demands upon tension and pressure, no permanent change of form must ensue. This is changed by working, such as rolling, drawing, etc. {57} Especially useful where infrangibility is desired, as in machinery, ordnance, etc. At high temperature this bronze loses its elasticity again.

V.—This contains 8.5 per cent aluminum and 1 ¹/₂ to 2 per cent silicium. Its use is advisable in cases where the metal is to possess a good elasticity, even in the cast state, and to retain it after being worked in red heat.

VI.—An acid bronze, containing 10 per cent aluminum; specific gravity, 7.65. Especially serviceable to resist oxidation and the action of acids.

VII.—Diamond bronze, containing 10 per cent aluminum and 2 per cent silicium. Specific gravity, 7.3. Very hard; of great firmness, but brittle.

Art Bronzes.

(See also Aluminum Bronzes and Japanese Bronzes under this title.)—I.—Copper, 84 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 5 parts.

II.—Copper, 90 parts; zinc, 6 parts; tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts.

III.—Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 30 parts; tin, 5 parts.

IV.—Copper, 90 parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; lead, 1 part.

V.—Copper, 85 parts; zinc, 10 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.

VI.—Copper, 72 parts; zinc, 23 parts; tin, 3 parts; lead, 2 parts.

Statuary Bronze.

—Many of the antique statues were made of genuine bronze, which has advantages for this purpose, but has been superseded in modern times by mixtures of metals containing, besides copper and tin—the constituents of real bronze—a quantity of zinc, the alloy thus formed being really an intermediate product between bronze and brass. The reason for the use of such mixtures lies partly in the comparative cheapness of their production as compared with genuine bronze, and partly in the purpose for which the metal is to be used. A thoroughly good statuary bronze must become thinly fluid in fusing, fill the molds out sharply, allow of being easily worked with the file, and must take on the beautiful green coating called patina, after being exposed to the air for a short time.

Genuine bronze, however strongly heated, does not become thin enough to fill out the molds well, and it is also difficult to obtain homogeneous castings from it. Brass alone is also too thickly fluid, and not hard enough for the required fine chiseling or chasing of the finished object. Alloys containing zinc and tin, in addition to copper, can be prepared in such a manner that they will become very thinly fluid, and will give fine castings which can easily be worked with the file and chisel. The best proportions seem to be from 10 to 18 per cent of zinc and from 2 to 4 per cent of tin. In point of hardness, statuary bronze holds an intermediate position between genuine bronze and brass, being harder and tougher than the latter, but not so much so as the former.

Since statuary bronze is used principally for artistic purposes, much depends upon the color. This can be varied from pale yellow to orange yellow by slightly varying the content of tin or zinc, which must, of course, still be kept between the limits given above. Too much tin makes the alloy brittle and difficult to chisel; with too much zinc, on the other hand, the warm tone of color is lost, and the bronze does not acquire a fine patina.

The best proportions for statuary bronze are very definitely known at the present day; yet it sometimes happens that large castings have not the right character. They are either defective in color, or they do not take on a fine patina, or they are difficult to chisel. These phenomena may be due to the use of impure metals—containing oxides, iron, lead, etc.—or to improper treatment of the alloy in melting. With the most careful work possible, there is a considerable loss in melting—3 per cent at the very least, and sometimes as much as 10. This is due to the large proportion of zinc, and it is evident that, in consequence of it, the nature of the alloy will be different from what might be expected from the quantities of metals used in its manufacture.

It has been remarked that slight variations in composition quickly change the color of the alloy. The following table gives a series of alloys of different colors, suitable for statuary bronze:

Copper

Zinc

Tin

Color

I

84.42

11.28

4.30

Reddish yellow

II

84.00

11.00

5.00

Orange red

III

83.05

13.03

3.92

Orange red

IV

83.00

12.00

5.00

Orange red

V

81.05

15.32

3.63

Orange yellow

VI

81.00

15.00

4.00

Orange yellow

VII

78.09

18.47

3.44

Orange yellow

VIII

73.58

23.27

3.15

Orange yellow

IX

73.00

23.00

4.00

Pale orange

X

70.36

26.88

2.76

Pale yellow

XI

70.00

27.00

3.00

Pale yellow

XII

65.95

31.56

2.49

Pale yellow

{58}

Perhaps the most satisfactory bronze metal is the alloy used in France for more than a century. It contains 91.60 per cent of copper, 5.33 per cent of zinc, 1.70 per cent of tin, and 1.37 per cent of lead. Somewhat more zinc is taken for articles to be gilded.

Bismuth Bronze.

—Copper, 52 parts; nickel, 30 parts; zinc, 12 parts; lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 part. For metallic mirrors, lamp reflectors, etc.

Gun Bronze.—See Phosphor Bronze under this title.

Japanese Bronzes.

—The formulas given below contain a large percentage of lead, which greatly improves the patina. The ingredients and the ratio of their parts for several sorts of modern Japanese bronze follow:

I.—Copper, 81.62 per cent; tin, 4.61 per cent; lead, 10.21 per cent.

II.—Copper, 76.60 per cent; tin, 4.38 per cent; lead, 11.88 per cent; zinc, 6.53 per cent.

III.—Copper, 88.55 per cent; tin, 2.42 per cent; lead, 4.72 per cent; zinc, 3.20 per cent.

Sometimes a little antimony is added just before casting, and such a composition would be represented more nearly by this formula:

IV.—Copper, 68.25 per cent; tin, 5.47 per cent; zinc, 8.88 per cent; lead, 17.06 per cent; antimony, 0.34 per cent.

For imitation Japanese bronze, see Plating under Bronzing.

Machine Bronze.

—I.—Copper, 89 per cent; tin, 11 per cent.

II.—Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 16 per cent.

Phosphor Bronze.

—Phosphor bronze is bronze containing varying amounts of phosphorus, from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to 1 or 2 per cent. Bronze containing simply copper and tin is very liable to be defective from the presence of oxygen, sulphur, or occluded gases. Oxygen causes the metal to be spongy and weak. Sulphur and occluded gases cause porosity. Oxygen gets into the metal by absorption from the air. It can be eliminated by adding to the metal something which combines with the oxygen and then fluxes off. Such deoxidizers are zinc, antimony, aluminum, manganese, silicon, and phosphorus. Sulphur and occluded gases can be eliminated by melting the metal, exposing it to the air, and letting it thus absorb some oxygen, which then burns the sulphur and gas. The oxygen can then be removed by adding one of the above-mentioned deoxidizers. The important use of phosphorus in bronze is, therefore, to remove oxygen and also indirectly to destroy occluded gas and sulphur.

A bronze is sometimes made with an extra high percentage of phosphorus, namely, 6 per cent. This alloy is made so as to have phosphorus in convenient form for use, and the process of manufacture is as follows: Ninety pounds of copper are melted under charcoal in a No. 70 crucible, which holds about 200 pounds of metal when full; 11 pounds of tin are added and the metal is allowed to become hot. The crucible is then removed from the furnace and 7 pounds of phosphorus are introduced in the following manner: A 3-gallon stone jar, half full of dilute solution of blue vitriol, is weighed. Then the weights are increased 7 pounds, and phosphorus in sticks about 4 inches long is added till the scales balance again. The phosphorus is left in this solution half an hour or longer, the phosphorus being given a coating of copper, so that it may be dried and exposed to the air without igniting. Have ready a pan about 30 inches square and 6 inches deep, containing about 2 inches of water. Over the water is a wire netting, which is laid loose on ledges or supports along the inner sides of the pan. On the netting is blotting paper, and on this the phosphorus is laid to dry when taken out of the blue-vitriol solution. The pan also has a lid which can be put down in case of ignition of the phosphorus.

The phosphorus is now ready for introduction into the metal. This is done by means of a cup-shaped instrument called a retort or phosphorizer. One man holds the retort on the rim of the crucible in a horizontal position. A second man takes about three pieces of phosphorus and throws them into the retort. The first man then immediately plunges the mouth of the retort below the surface of the metal before the phosphorus has a chance to fall or flow out. Of course the phosphorus immediately melts and also begins to volatilize. As the phosphorus comes in contact with the metal, it combines with it. This process is continued till all the 7 pounds of phosphorus has been put into the metal. The metal is then poured into slabs about 3 inches by 4 inches by 1 inch thick. The metal is so hard that a greater thickness would make it difficult to break it up. When finished, the metal contains, by analysis, 6 per cent of phosphorus. When phosphorus is to be added to metal, a little of this hardener is employed.

Copper is a soft, ductile metal, with its melting point at about 2,000° F. {59} Molten copper has the marked property of absorbing various gases. It is for this reason that it is so difficult to make sound castings of clear copper. Molten copper combines readily with the oxygen of the air, forming oxide of copper, which dissolves in the copper and mixes homogeneously with it.

A casting made from such metal would be very spongy. The bad effect of oxygen is intended to be overcome by adding zinc to the extent of 1 per cent or more. This result can be much more effectively attained by the use of aluminum, manganese, or phosphorus. The action of these substances is to combine with the oxygen, and as the product formed separates and goes to the surface, the metal is left in a sound condition. Aluminum and manganese deoxidize copper and bronze very effectively, and the oxide formed goes to the surface as a scum. When a casting is made from such metal, the oxide or scum, instead of freeing itself from the casting perfectly, generally remains in the top part of the casting mixed with the metal, as a fractured surface will show. Phosphorus deoxidizes copper, and the oxide formed leaves the metal in the form of a gas, so that a casting made from such metal shows a clean fracture throughout, although the metal is not so dense as when aluminum or manganese is used.

Copper also has the property of absorbing or occluding carbon monoxide. But the carbonic oxide thus absorbed is in a different condition from the oxygen absorbed. When oxygen is absorbed by copper, the oxygen combines chemically with the copper and loses its own identity as a gas. But when coal gas is absorbed by the copper, it keeps its own physical identity and simply exists in the copper in a state of solution. All natural waters, such as lake water, river water, spring water, etc., contain air in solution or occlusion. When such water is cooled and frozen, just at the time of changing from the liquid to the solid state, the dissolved gas separates and forms air bubbles, which remain entangled in the ice. The carbonic oxide which is dissolved or occluded in copper acts in exactly the same way.

Hydrogen acts in exactly the same manner as carbonic oxide. Sulphur also has a bad effect upon copper and bronze. Sulphur combines with copper and other metals, forming sulphide of copper, etc. When molten copper or bronze containing sulphur comes in contact with air it absorbs some oxygen, and this in turn combines with the sulphur present, forming sulphur dioxide, which is a gas which remains occluded in the metal.

Tin is a soft, white metal, melting at 440° F. Toward gases it acts something like copper, but not in so marked a degree. Although copper and tin are both soft, yet when mixed they make a harder metal. When bronze cools from the molten state, the copper and the copper-tin alloy tend to crystallize by themselves. The quicker the cooling occurs the less separation will there be, and also the fracture will be more homogeneous in appearance.

Gun bronze contains copper and tin in the proportion of 9 or 10 parts of copper to 1 of tin. This is the metal used when an ordinary bronze casting is wanted. A harder bronze is copper and tin in the ratio of 6 to 1. This is often used as a bearing metal. When either of these metals is to be turned in the machine shop, they should contain about 3 per cent of lead, which will make them work very much better, but it also decreases their tensile strength. Bearing metal now generally contains about 10 per cent of lead, with copper and tin in varying ratios. The large percentage of lead is put in that the metal may wear away slower. Lead, although a metal having properties similar to tin, acts entirely different toward copper. Copper and tin have a good deal of affinity for each other, but copper and lead show no attraction at all for each other. Copper and tin mix in all proportions, but copper and lead mix only to a very limited extent. About 3 per cent of lead can be mixed with copper. With bronze about 15 per cent to 20 per cent of lead can be mixed. In bearing bronze the lead keeps its own physical properties, so that the constituent lead melts long before the metal attains a red heat. It sometimes happens when a bearing runs warm that the lead actually sweats out and forms pimples on the metal. Or, sometimes, in remelting a bearing bronze casting the lead may be seen to drop out while the metal is warming up. All of these metals, however, should contain something to flux or deoxidize them, such as zinc, manganese, aluminum, silicon, antimony, or phosphorus.

The phosphor bronze bearing metal in vogue has the following composition: Copper, 79.7 per cent; tin, 10 per cent; lead, 10 percent; and phosphorus, 0.3 per cent.

Melt 140 pounds of copper in a No. 70 pot, covering with charcoal. When copper is all melted, add 17 ¹/₂ pounds of tin to 17 ¹/₂ pounds of lead, and allow the metal to become sufficiently warm, but {60} not any hotter than is needed. Then add 10 pounds of “hardener” (made as previously described) and stir well. Remove from furnace, skim off the charcoal, cool the metal with gates to as low a temperature as is consistent with getting a good casting, stir well again, and pour. The molds for this kind of work are faced with plumbago.

There are several firms that make phosphor-bronze bearings with a composition similar to the above one, and most of them, or perhaps all, make it by melting the metals and then charging with phosphorus to the extent of 0.7 to 1 per cent. But some metal from all brands contains occluded gas. So that after such metal is cast (in about two minutes or so) the metal will ooze or sweat out through the gate, and such a casting will be found to be porous. But not one such experience with metal made as described above has yet been found.

This practical point should be heeded, viz., that pig phosphor bronze should be brought to the specifications that the metal should have shrunk in the ingot mold in cooling, as shown by the concave surface of the upper side, and that it should make a casting in a sand mold without rising in the gate after being poured.

In bearing metal, occluded gas is very objectionable, because the gas, in trying to free itself, shoves the very hard copper-tin compound (which has a low melting point and remains liquid after the copper has begun to set) into spots, and thus causes hard spots in the metal.

Phosphorus is very dangerous to handle, and there is great risk from fire with it, so that many would not care to handle the phosphorus itself. But phosphor copper containing 5 per cent of phosphorus, and phosphor tin containing 2 to 7 per cent of phosphorus, and several other such alloys can be obtained in the market. It may be suggested to those who wish to make phosphor bronze, but do not want to handle phosphorus itself, to make it by using the proper amounts of one of these high phosphorus alloys. In using phosphorus it is only necessary to use enough to thoroughly deoxidize the metal, say 0.3 per cent. More than this will make the metal harder, but not any sounder.

Phosphor bronze is not a special kind of alloy, but any bronze can be made into phosphor bronze; it is, in fact, simply a deoxidized bronze, produced under treatment with phosphorus compounds.

Although the effect of phosphorus in improving the quality of bronze has been known for more than fifty years, it is only of late that the mode for preparing phosphor bronze has been perfected. It is now manufactured in many localities. Besides its action in reducing the oxides dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another very material influence upon the properties of the bronze. The ordinary bronzes consist of mixtures in which the copper is really the only crystallized constituent, since the tin crystallizes with great difficulty. As a consequence of this dissimilarity in the nature of the two metals, the alloy is not so solid as it would be if both were crystallized. The phosphorus causes the tin to crystallize, and the result is a more homogeneous mixture of the two metals.

If enough phosphorus is added, so that its presence can be detected in the finished bronze, the latter may be considered an alloy of crystallized phosphor tin with copper. If the content of phosphor is still more increased, a part of the copper combines with the phosphorus, and the bronze then contains, besides copper and tin, compounds of crystallized copper phosphide with phosphide of tin. The strength and tenacity of the bronze are not lessened by a larger amount of phosphorus, and its hardness is considerably increased. Most phosphor bronzes are equal in this respect to the best steel, and some even surpass it in general properties.

The phosphorus is added to the bronze in the form of copper phosphide or phosphide of tin, the two being sometimes used together. They must be specially prepared for this purpose, and the best methods will be here given. Copper phosphide is prepared by heating a mixture of 4 parts of superphosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated copper, and 1 part of finely pulverized coal in a crucible at a temperature not too high. The melted copper phosphide, containing 14 per cent of phosphorus, separates on the bottom of the crucible.

Tin phosphide is prepared as follows: Place a bar of zinc in an aqueous solution of tin chloride. The tin will be separated in the form of a sponge-like mass. Collect it, and put it into a crucible, upon the bottom of which sticks of phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin tightly into the crucible, and expose to a gentle heat. Continue the heating until flames of burning phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. The pure tin phosphide, in the form of a coarsely crystalline mass, tin-white in color, will be found on the bottom of the crucible.

To prepare the phosphor bronze, the {61} alloy to be treated is melted in the usual way, and small pieces of the copper phosphide and tin phosphide are added.

Phosphor bronze, properly prepared, has nearly the same melting point as that of ordinary bronze. In cooling, however, it has the peculiarity of passing directly from the liquid to the solid state, without first becoming thickly fluid. In a melted state it retains a perfectly bright surface, while ordinary bronze in this condition is always covered with a thin film of oxide.

If phosphor bronze is kept for a long time at the melting point, there is not any loss of tin, but the amount of phosphorus is slightly diminished.

The most valuable properties of phosphor bronze are its extraordinary tenacity and strength. It can be rolled, hammered, and stretched cold, and its strength is nearly double that of the best ordinary bronze. It is principally used in cases where great strength and power of resistance to outward influences are required, as, for instance, in objects which are to be exposed to the action of sea water.

Phosphor bronze containing about 4 per cent of tin is excellently well adapted for sheet bronze. With not more than 5 per cent of tin, it can be used, forged, for firearms. Seven to 10 per cent of tin gives the greatest hardness, and such bronze is especially suited to the manufacture of axle bearings, cylinders for steam fire engines, cogwheels, and, in general, for parts of machines where great strength and hardness are required. Phosphor bronze, if exposed to the air, soon becomes covered with a beautiful, closely adhering patina, and is therefore well adapted to purposes of art. The amount of phosphorus added varies from 0.25 to 2.5 per cent, according to the purpose of the bronze. The composition of a number of kinds of phosphor bronze is given below:

Cop­per

Tin

Zinc

Lead

Iron

Phos­pho­rus

I.

85.55

9.85

3.77

0.62

trs.

0.05

II.

—

4–15

—

4–15

—

0.5–3

III.

—

4–15

8–20

4–15

—

0.25–2

IV.

77.85

11.00

7.65

—

—

—

V.

72.50

8.00

17.00

—

—

—

VI.

73.50

6.00

19.00

—

—

—

VII.

74.50

11.00

11.00

—

—

—

VIII.

83.50

8.00

3.00

—

—

—

IX.

90.34

8.90

—

—

—

0.76

X.

90.86

8.56

—

—

—

0.196

XI.

94.71

4.39

—

—

—

0.053

I for axle bearings, II and III for harder and softer axle bearings, IV to VIII for railroad purposes, IV especially for valves of locomotives, V and VI axle bearings for wagons, VII for connecting rods, VIII for piston rods in hydraulic presses.

Steel Bronze

.—Copper, 60; ferromanganese (containing 70 to 80 per cent manganese), 40; zinc, 15.

Silicon Bronze.

—Silicon, similarly to phosphorus, acts as a deoxidizing agent, and the bronzes produced under its influence are very ductile and elastic, do not rust, and are very strong. On account of these qualities silicon bronze is much used for telegraph and telephone wires. The process of manufacture is similar to that of phosphor bronze; the silicon is used in the form of copper silicide. Some good silicon bronzes are as follows:

I

II

Copper

97.12

97.37

Tin

1.14

1.32

Zinc

1.10

1.27

Silicon

0.05

0.07

Sun Bronze.

—The alloy called sun bronze contains 10 parts of aluminum, 30 to 50 parts of copper, and 40 to 60 parts of cobalt. The mixture known by the name of metalline has 25 per cent of aluminum, 30 of copper, 10 of iron, and 35 of cobalt. These alloys melt at a point approaching the melting point of copper, are tenacious, ductile, and very hard.

Tobin Bronze.

—This alloy is nearly similar in composition and properties to Delta metal.

I

II

III

IV

Copper

61.203

59.00

61.20

82.67

Zinc

27.440

38.40

37.14

3.23

Tin

0.906

2.16

0.90

12.40

Iron

0.180

0.11

0.18

0.10

Lead

0.359

0.31

0.35

2.14

Silver

—

—

—

0.07

Phosphorus

—

—

—

0.005

The alloy marked IV is sometimes called deoxidized bronze.

Violet-colored bronze is 50 parts copper and 50 parts antimony.

Cadmium Alloys:

See also Fusible Alloys.

Lipowitz’s Alloy.

—I.—This alloy is composed of cadmium, 3 parts; tin, 4; bismuth, 15; and lead, 8. The simplest method of preparation is to heat the metals, in small pieces, in a crucible, stirring constantly, as soon as fusion {62} begins, with a stick of hard wood. The stirring is important, in order to prevent the metals, whose specific gravity varies considerably, from being deposited in layers. The alloy softens at 140° F. and melts completely at 158° F. The color is silvery white, with a luster like polished silver, and the metal can be bent, hammered, and turned. These properties would make it valuable for many purposes where a beautiful appearance is of special importance, but on account of the considerable amount of cadmium and bismuth which it contains, it is rather expensive, and therefore limited in use. Casts of small animals, insects, lizards, etc., have been prepared from it, which were equal in sharpness to the best galvanoplastic work. Plaster of Paris is poured over the animal to be cast, and after sharp drying, the animal is removed and the mold filled up with Lipowitz’s metal. The mold is placed in a vessel of water, and by heating to the boiling point the metal is melted and deposited in the finest impressions of the mold.

This alloy is most excellent for soldering tin, lead, Britannia metal, and nickel, being especially adapted to the last two metals on account of its silver-white color. But here again its costliness prevents its general use, and cheaper alloys possessing the same properties have been sought. In cases where the silver-white color and the low melting point are not of the first importance, the alloys given below may very well be used in the place of it.

II.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 170° F.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 3; lead, 11; bismuth, 16.

III.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 167° F.): Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3; lead, 8; bismuth, 8.

Cadmium alloys (melting point, 203° F.):

IV

V

VI

Cadmium

1

1

1

parts

Tin

2

3

1

parts

Bismuth

3

5

2

parts

VII.—A very fusible alloy, melting at 150° F., is composed of tin, 1 or 2 parts; lead, 2 or 3; bismuth, 4 or 15; cadmium, 1 or 2.

VIII.—Wood’s alloy melts between 140° and 161.5° F. It is composed of lead, 4 parts; tin, 2; bismuth, 5 to 8; cadmium, 1 to 2. In color it resembles platinum, and is malleable to a certain extent.

IX.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 179.5° F.): Cadmium, 1 part; lead, 6 parts; bismuth, 7. This, like the preceding, can be used for soldering in hot water.

X.—Cadmium alloy (melting point, 300° F.): Cadmium, 2 parts; tin, 4; lead, 2. This is an excellent soft solder, with a melting point about 86 degrees below that of lead and tin alone.

Cadmium Alloys With Gold, Silver, And Copper.

—I.—Gold, 750 parts; silver, 166 parts; cadmium, 84 parts. A malleable and ductile alloy of green color.

II.—Gold, 750 parts; silver, 125 parts; and cadmium, 125 parts. Malleable and ductile alloy of yellowish-green hue.

III.—Gold, 746 parts; silver, 114 parts; copper, 97 parts; and cadmium, 43 parts. Likewise a malleable and ductile alloy of a peculiar green shade. All these alloys are suitable for plating. As regards their production, each must be carefully melted together from its ingredients in a covered crucible lined with coal dust, or in a graphite crucible. Next, the alloy has to be remelted in a graphite crucible with charcoal (or rosin powder) and borax. If, in spite thereof, a considerable portion of the cadmium should have evaporated, the alloy must be re-fused once more with an addition of cadmium.

Alloys For Casting Coins, Medallions, Etc.

Alloys which fulfill the requirements of the medalist, and capable, therefore, of reproducing all details, are the following:

I

II

Tin

3

6

parts

Lead

13

8

parts

Bismuth

6

14

parts

III.—A soft alloy suitable to take impressions of woodcuts, coins, metals, engravings, etc., and which must melt at a low degree of heat, is made out of bismuth, 3 parts; tin, 1 ¹/₂ parts; lead, 2 ¹/₂ parts; and worn-out type, 1 part.

Acid-proof Alloy.

—This alloy is characterized by its power of resisting the action of acids, and is therefore especially adapted to making cocks, pipes, etc., which are to come in contact with acid fluids. It is composed of copper, zinc, lead, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt, and antimony, in the following proportions:

Copper

74.75 parts

Zinc

0.61 parts

Lead

16.35 parts

Tin

0.91 parts

Iron

0.43 parts

Nickel or Cobalt

0.24 parts

Antimony

6.78 parts

{63}

Albata Metal.

—Copper, 40 parts; zinc, 32 parts; and nickel, 8 parts.

Alfenide Metal.

—Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 30; nickel, 10; traces of iron.

Bath Metal.

—This alloy is used especially in England for the manufacture of teapots, and is very popular owing to the fine white color it possesses. It takes a high polish, and articles made from this alloy acquire in the course of time, upon only being rubbed with a white cloth, a permanent silver luster. The composition of Bath metal is copper, 55 parts; zinc, 45 parts.

Baudoin Metal.

—This is composed of 72 parts of copper, 16.6 of nickel, 1.8 of cobalt, 1 of zinc; ¹/₂ per cent of aluminum may be added.

Casting Copper:

Macht’s Yellow Metal.

—I.—This alloy consists of 33 parts of copper and 25 of zinc. It has a dark golden-yellow color, great tenacity, and can be forged at a red heat, properties which make it especially suitable for fine castings.

II.—Yellow.—Copper, 67 to 70 parts; zinc, 33 to 30 parts.

III.—Red.—Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts.

Copper Arsenic.

—Arsenic imparts to copper a very fine white color, and makes it very hard and brittle. Before German silver was known, these alloys were sometimes used for the manufacture of such cast articles as were not to come in contact with iron. When exposed to the air, they soon lose their whiteness and take on a brownish shade. On account of this, as well as the poisonous character of the arsenic, they are very little used at the present time. Alloys of copper and arsenic are best prepared by pressing firmly into a crucible a mixture of 70 parts of copper and 30 of arsenic (the copper to be used in the form of fine shavings) and fusing this mixture in a furnace with a good draught, under a cover of glass.

Copper Iron.

—The alloys of copper and iron are little used in the industries of the present day, but it would seem that in earlier times they were frequently prepared for the purpose of giving a considerable degree of hardness to copper; for in antique casts, consisting principally of copper, we regularly find large quantities of iron, which leads to the supposition that they were added intentionally.

These alloys, when of a certain composition, have considerable strength and hardness. With an increase in the quantity of the iron the hardness increases, but the solidity is lessened. A copper and iron alloy of considerable strength, and at the same time very hard, is made of copper, 66 parts; iron, 34. These alloys acquire, on exposure to air, an ugly color inclining toward black, and are therefore not adapted for articles of art.

Copper Nickel.

—A. Morrell, of New York, has obtained a patent on a nickel-copper alloy which he claims is valuable on account of its noncorrosive qualities, therefore making it desirable for ships, boiler tubes, and other uses where the metal comes much in contact with water. The process of making the metal is by smelting ore containing sulphide of nickel and copper, and besemerizing the resultant matter. This is calcined in order to obtain the nickel and copper in the form of oxides. The latter are reduced in reverberating furnace with carbon, or the like, so as to produce an alloy which preferably contains 2 parts of nickel and 1 part of copper.

Delta Metal.

—An alloy widely used for making parts of machinery, and also for artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta metal. This is a variety of brass hardened with iron; some manufacturers add small quantities of tin and lead; also, in some cases, nickel. The following analysis of Delta metal (from the factory at Düsseldorf) will show its usual composition:

I

II

III

IV

V

Copper

55.94

55.80

55.82

54.22

58.65

Zinc

41.61

40.07

41.41

42.25

38.95

Lead

0.72

1.82

0.76

1.10

0.67

Iron

0.87

1.28

0.86

0.99

1.62

Manganese

0.81

0.96

1.38

1.09

—

Nickel

traces.

traces.

0.06

0.16

0.11

Phosphorus

0.013

0.011

traces.

0.02

—

I is cast, II hammered, III rolled, and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta metal is produced by heating zinc very strongly in crucibles (to about 1600° F.), and adding ferromanganese or “spiegeleisen,” producing an alloy of 95 per cent zinc and 5 per cent of iron. Copper and brass and a very small amount of copper phosphate are also added. {64}